6 pieces/50 ml
; | Southern Baltic Sea | 0–27 particles/kg of bottom sediment d.w. | |
Belgian coast | 390 particles/kg | |
Arctic Deep-Sea from the HAUSGARTEN Observatory | 4356 particles/kg | |
Belgium shelf | 100−3600/kg | |
Dutch North Seacoast | 54−3146/kg | |
Guanabara Bay | 8766 particles | |
Northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries, NA | 13.2–50.6 items m | |
Madu-Ganga estuary, Sri Lanka | 5.88 ± 1.33 items/100g | |
Table 3
Microplastic ingestion level of different coastal and marine biota of the coastal and marine ecosystems in the world.
Species | Ingestion Level | Location | Reference |
---|
tissue | 0.2 parts/g | French-Belgian-Dutch coast line | |
feces | 0.1 parts/g |
tissue | 1.2 parts/g |
feces | 0.3 parts/g |
Striped barnacle: | 0.23–0.43 particles/g | Eastern coast of Thailand | |
Rock oyster: | 0.37–0.57 particles/g |
Periwinkle: sp. | 0.17–0.23 particles/g |
Scleractinian coral: | 21 % | Orpheus Island in the central region along the Great Barrier Reef | |
| 3.40 items/g GT | Northern Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh | |
| 3.87 items/g GT |
Crab: | 15033 and 267 microspheres/ml in Haemolymph at 21 days and 24 h respectively | United Kingdom | |
Brown shrimp: | 1.23 particles/shrimp | Channel area and Southern part of the North Sea | |
Goose neck barnacle: spp. | 33.5 % | North Pacific Sub tropical Gyre | |
Myctophid fish stomach | 14 % | Atlantic Ocean | |
33 % | Pacific Ocean |
Copepods: | 77 % | Western English Channel | |
Pelagic Fish | 36.5 % | English Channel | |
Planktivorous fishes in Family Myctophidae, Stomiidae, and Scomberesocidae | 2.1 pieces/fish | North Pacific Gyre | |
Pelagic and demersal commercial fish varieties | 1.9 particles/fish | United Kingdom | |
2.6 % of fish | Netherland |
Decapod Crustacean: | 83 % of individuals | United Kingdom | |
Fishes | 205 counts (196 individuals) of 2233 gut contents | Paraiba and Mamanguape, Brazil, South America
| |
| 33% 18% 18% | Goiana Estuary, Brazil, South America | |
Seabream, | 73% | Mondego Estuary (Portugal) | |
Rock Oyster: Periwinkle: Limpets: | 7.2–2.8 counts/g | Southern coastal water, Sri Lanka | |
Commerson's anchovy: | 30.17 ± 3.58 items/100mg in gut 29.33 ± 1.19 items/g in muscles | Madu-Ganga Estuary, Sri Lanka | |
Images of scanning electron-microscopic polystyrene (PS) (a, b) and polyamide nylon (PA) (c, d), found in the ingested microplastic samples of Rock Oyster: Saccostrea forskalii , Striped Barnacle: Balanus Amphitrite , and Periwinkle: Littoraria sp. along eastern coasts of Thailand (photo authorship: Thushari et al., 2017a ).
Various literature records are available on the accumulation of microplastic in invertebrate groups and vertebrates found on the coastal and marine environment ( Table 3 ). The microscopic size of microplastic fragments is characterized by a higher surface area: volume ratio and increasing the potential of transporting contaminants and accumulate in biota ( STAP, 2011 ).
Toxic chemicals such as Bisphenol-A (BPA), monomers, flame retardants, oligomers, metal ions, and antibiotics are incorporated with plastics, and these chemical substances can accumulate in the marine organisms that ingested plastics unintentionally ( Lithner et al., 2011 ). Fish, mollusks, and mammals have potentially toxic effects by flame retardants and phthalates incorporated in plastics ( Teuten et al., 2009 ; Oehlmann et al., 2009 ). Based on experimental conditions, BPA and phthalate in plastic causes significant impacts on reproduction, genetic mutations, and growth of organisms ( Oehlmann et al., 2009 ). Similarly, natural populations cause substantial negative consequences due to the presence of above toxic substances in their diet or surrounding environment. On the other hand, plastic materials can absorb persistent toxic chemical substances with bio-accumulation potential. Such kinds of major toxic substances are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which are highly resistant to biodegradation. POPs include DDT like Organochlorine pesticides, by-products of many industrial processes such as dioxins, i.e., Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PCDD) and Dibenzo Furans (PCDF), and industrial chemicals like Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCB). Absorbance efficiency of persistent chemicals into plastic materials is significantly higher compared to surrounding seawater ( Teuten et al., 2009 ; Rios et al., 2010 ; Hirai et al., 2011 ). Contaminated plastic debris with this kind of chemicals has high potential in causing the transportation of persistent chemicals into the marine organisms via feeding. Literature also records the high potential of interacting antibiotics and metal ions with plastics. Both microplastics and Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) are ubiquitous pollutants in aquatic ecosystems; the reaction of these two contaminants with each other is recorded in the respective environment. As a result, the adsorption of SMX into microplastics reached equilibrium within 16 hours. Sulfamethazine (SMT) has the adsorption capacity into six types of microplastics: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). However, the adsorption rate of SMX and SMT into microplastics gradually decreased with different environmental variables like pH and salinity ( Guo et al., 2019b , 2019c ). These kinds of persistent antibiotics can cause adverse environmental impacts due to biological activity and antibacterial characters ( Dlugosz et al., 2015 ). The presence of antibiotic drugs makes changes in the population of microbes by proliferating antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the natural aquatic environment. This would cause hazardous health threats to humans and other aquatic faunal communities ( Baran et al., 2011 ; Hoa et al., 2011 ).
The microplastic also has an affinity with metal compounds and possible in causing eco-toxicological effects. The adsorption capacity of Sr 2+ on to three types of microplastics, i.e., polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), has been detected according to literature records. The total adsorption rate of Sr 2+ into microplastics is regulated by the external mass transfer step ( Guo and Wang, 2019d ). Accumulated non-biodegradable metal ions in the ecosystems cause toxic effects in plants and animals even at lower levels, and heavy metals produce adverse health effects on humans ( Ntihuga, 2006 ).
According to Cole et al. (2013) , toxic chemical compounds can accumulate in the organisms in higher trophic levels by ingestion of seafood contaminated with plastics and persistent materials, heavy metals, and pharmaceutical compounds. Accordingly, these chemical substances can enter humans through food webs, creating health issues.
Marine litter, including plastics, is useful as a habitat for aquatic organisms. Those artificial, hard substrates act as a new surface for assemblage and colonization of coastal and marine organisms ( Figure 2 ). Invertebrate species including bivalves, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods, bryozoans, coelenterates, insects, sponges, and polychaetes, seagrasses, and seaweeds are the major taxa using the substrate of litter/debris as habitats ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ) ( Figure 2 ). Abandoned fishing gears, ALDF, and their parts are used as substrates for colonization of mobile and sessile organisms ( Good et al., 2010 ; Ayaz et al., 2006 ). Plastic debris provides functional habitats for different microorganisms ( Zettler et al., 2013 ). Vibrio bacteria have preferably grown on plastic debris in the oceanic system ( GEF, 2012 ), and marine plastic waste has also been used as new habitat by observed 47 associated marine species in the Maltese Islands ( Pace et al., 2007 ). Dispersion via plastic debris is another ecological effect caused by macro- and megaplastics. Plastic debris acts as floating objects and provides a stable substrate for rafting and transportation of mobile and sessile organisms. This effect acts as a mode of introducing invasive species into a new ecosystem. Ecosystem composition, structure, and equilibrium are totally modified due to competition for resources (e.g., Food, Habitat, and Space) between native and non-native species in such systems. Plastic debris acting as rafting agents are plastic fragments, fishing gear parts, nets, ropes, fishing materials, packaging materials, and microplastic matter ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ). Crustaceans and Annelids are the frequently observed mobile organisms rafting via litter ( Goldstein et al., 2014 ). According to Goldstein et al. (2014) , a diverse group of plastic rafting organisms was recorded from the western and eastern pacific oceanic regions during the 2009–2012 period, while 134 species belonging to 14 phyla were attached to the substrate of plastic buoys originated from aquaculture operations along the south-eastern Pacific region in Chile during 2001–2005 ( Astudillo et al., 2009 ). The floating capacity of the plastic buoys is higher and allows transporting a long distance from the place of origin over the water surface. Austrominius modestus, an exotic barnacle species attached to plastic debris, was observed in Shetland Island, United Kingdom ( Barnes and Milner, 2015 ). In the North Pacific region, various taxonomic groups attached to the floating litter were recorded during 2009–2012, and 87% of total attached debris was hard plastic fragments, as referenced in Goldstein et al. (2014) . Barnes and Milner (2015) revealed that assessing the effects of the accidental introduction of organisms by marine debris is difficult.
Assemblage or ecosystem-level effect was recorded as another consequence of plastic pollution. The degree of severity for the ecosystem level by plastic debris depends on several factors: area covered by plastic debris, type and nature of plastic debris, level of sensitivity of the respective ecosystem, and associated organisms. Based on the literature records, plastic debris accumulation modifies the habitats in the marine environment. Further, benthic, submerged ecosystems such as seagrass and coral reefs in the marine environment degrade by deposition of macro and mega plastic debris on the seafloor ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ). Degraded benthic ecosystems reduce the species richness and composition in the marine environment. Derelict fishing gears are mostly affecting debris type causing assemblage-level impacts ( GEF, 2012 ). In Oman, 69% of coral sites were negatively affected by abandoned fishing gears, or ALDF, including gill nets, and more than 20 genera of corals were adversely affected by decreasing the coral biodiversity ( Al-Jufaili et al., 1999 ). Carson et al. (2011) revealed that microplastic fragments are responsible for changing porosity and heat transferring capacity of sediments. Thus, the physical characteristics of benthic habitats will be altered accordingly, and this would make the survival of benthos difficult without optimum conditions. Plastic debris over the surface of seawater reduces the light penetration capacity and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level in habitats; accordingly, changes of physicochemical water quality parameters affect primary productivity and tropic relationship in water negatively. Biodiversity gradually declines because of the absence of optimum conditions in the habitats and niches, since food availability and DO level are considered as the main factors (habitat factors) affecting biodiversity. Also, the presence of plastic debris on the respective niches negatively affects the behavioral changes of coastal and marine organisms ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ). Foraging capacity of the intertidal mollusk, Nassarius pullus, reduces rapidly with the presence of plastic debris ( Aloy et al., 2011 ).
3.2. Socio-economic effects by plastic pollution in respective ecosystems
Plastic pollution causes different socio-economic impacts on various aspects, such as commercial fishery, tourism, shipping, and human health, and negatively affects the national economy of the respective country by allocating an extra budget for waste removal. An overload of plastic contaminants in the ocean basins and coastal zones directly influence the commercial fishery, aquaculture, and tourism. In Scotland, debris removal, including plastic litter such as fishing gears and PVC pipes, causes loss of fishing time and extra expense for cleaning ( Ten et al., 2009 ). Ghost trapping fishing (accidental fish catch by discarded/abandoned and lost fishing gear: ALDF) was identified as one of the adverse effects on the commercial fishery sector ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004 ). Ghost fishing significantly reduces fish stocks which play a major role in commercial and recreational fishing ( Anderson and Alford, 2013 ). According to the literature records ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004 ), the expenses are approximately US$ 145 and 168 due to ghost fishing for three months and six months, respectively. Cost-benefit analysis has identified the effect of ghost fishing in Puget Sound, USA ( Gilardi et al., 2010 ), and accordingly, the cost for commercial crab fishery by ghost fishing is nearly US$ 19,656. In Indonesia, severe changes on fishing grounds were recorded by litter accumulation, and fishing gear types were identified as the main component of marine litter. Further, debris accumulation caused negative impacts on the artisanal fishery sector in Indonesia ( Nash, 1992 ). As per UNEP (2009) , an annual loss of US$ 250 million was due to the loss of the lobster fishery sector by the presence of ghost fishing gears.
Marine plastic debris can also act as a key contributor to the distribution of non-native, invasive species. CIESM (2014) has identified algae growth and the proliferation of plastic debris. The overgrowth of these algae has the potential to cause harmful algae blooms and, accordingly, depletion of ecosystem health with economic loss by fishery and tourism-related activities. Further, it induces the depletion of sensitive, submerged ecosystems such as coral reefs, destroy breeding and nursery grounds of seafood sources, and result in a substantial loss of commercial fishery catch ( GEF, 2012 ).
Moreover, microplastic pollution has a severe negative effect on the fishery sector. Organisms representing lower trophic levels are possible to ingest microplastic with food particles ( Wright et al., 2013 ). These contaminants pass to the other organisms through food webs and may accumulate toxic chemicals in higher trophic levels, including fish ( Wright et al., 2013 ), with adverse effects on capture fishery and aquaculture sector. Contaminated fishery sources have low demand, and thus, create an economic loss. If plastic pollution affects negatively on marine biodiversity, seafood safety, and availability, it will create a severe economic impact at the global level, especially in developing countries or islands where marine and coastal fishery resources are a major food source. As an example, food fish contributes, or exceeds, approximately 50% of total animal protein intake in some small islands or developing states: e.g., Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Sri Lanka. The depletion of fishery resources by plastic pollution directly affects the economy of such countries described above and causes socio-economic crisis and health issues consequently ( Nerland et al., 2014 ; McKinley and Johnston, 2010 ; Johnston and Roberts, 2009 ; FAO, 2016 ).
Plastic pollution in beaches and marine environment triggers a negative effect on aesthetic value, natural beauty, and health of ecosystems ( Figure 4 ). As a result, the lowered aesthetic and recreational value in coastal shore areas and marine systems lead to a significant reduction in the total number of tourists ( Figure 4 ). On the other hand, the health of ecosystems and the possibility of involvement in most recreational activities in marine and coastal zones are proportionate. For example, offshore ocean basin and sensitive coastal ecosystems (e.g., healthy coral reef ecosystems) are associated with tourism-related activities such as coral watching, snorkeling, whale watching, turtle watching, sport fishing, and scuba diving. Death of a coral cover by plastic debris implies the loss of such kind of tourism activities and reducing the number of tourists visiting a specific region ( GEF, 2012 ). The ciliated pathogen, which acts as the causative agent of skeletal eroding band disease in corals, was identified in floating plastic in the western pacific region ( Goldstein et al., 2014 ). Accordingly, infected corals are gradually depleting and severely affect the alteration of ecosystem structure and compositions. Therefore, degraded coral systems may cause to reduce the number of tourists due to loss of aesthetic value and attraction in a certain region. Tourism is related to different parties gaining benefits via direct and/or indirect manner. As an example, a reduced number of tourists causes loss of job opportunities for local communities who depend on tourism-related activities in the respective area. Accordingly, a substantial economic loss directly interconnects with the negative effects of the social aspect. Tourism-oriented islands such as Hawaii and Maldives are economically threatened by declining the annual income through tourism due to this kind of anthropogenic factors ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ).
Negative effects of plastic pollution on coastal and marine vicinity (photo authorship: J.D.M. Senevirathna).
Plastic debris can cause direct and indirect health effects on humans through the ingestion of contaminated seafood sources, and the accumulation of poisonous, persistent chemical substances in the human body. Scuba divers have severe health risks in trapping and entangling discarded fishing nets during diving ( GEF, 2012 ). There is a high risk of loss of lives by accidents due to the accumulation of mega-size marine plastic debris in the ocean ( GEF, 2012 ). Further, polluted coastal and marine zones are associated with negative health issues on tourists and coastal residents. Polluted seawater with plastic debris has adverse impacts on tourists in recreational activities. There are also records of severe injuries by sharp cuts from plastic debris in the shore area and marine zones. Overload of plastic debris in recreational beaches and ocean systems can raise health issues such as lower blood pressure and reduce mental fitness (e.g., stress, anger, tension) in humans ( GESAMP, 2015 ). Adverse health effects can reduce the country's productivity and working efficiency with negative impacts on social and economic aspects of the affected area. In India, environmental problems, including pollution, causes serious ecological effects on the coastal ecosystems, and consequently, have a direct effect on the socio-economic status of coastal communities ( Lakshmi and Rajagopalan, 2000 ).
As the fouling of plastic debris in ships creates disturbances of operational activities, it requires cleaning of ship hulls for proper functioning. APEC (2009) recorded that the annual cost of damage from debris, including plastic litter on shipping, is US$ 279 million. In summary, both ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are inter-related.
4. Initiatives on plastic pollution control and prevention
Several kinds of strategies have been identified to address the issue of plastic pollution. Institutional level involvement is such kind of key strategy used in treating the current topic. Global, regional, and national level institutions are essential in controlling and preventing the accumulation of plastic debris in the marine and coastal environments.
4.1. Global-scale initiatives
The United Nations (UN) General Assembly on oceans and the Law of the Sea are examples of such global initiatives that are useful for addressing this issue. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an international legal framework for controlling plastic contamination. Article 207 and 211 emphasize marine pollution, including plastic debris accumulation with a particular focus on the reduction, control, and prevention of plastic litter. Further, states are provisioning for controlling, reducing, and preventing pollution from different sources like land-based and sea-based sources. UN General Assembly has also delivered essential declarations to make the marine environment cleaner. That includes resolution on making partnership for awareness between the general public and private sector regarding the effects of plastic pollution on ecological, social, and economic aspects and the explicit integration for addressing the issues arising from contamination by plastic debris as aligning with a national strategic framework ( Hirai et al., 2011 ; Cole et al., 2013 ).
Further, the same resolution states that ( Chiappone et al. (2002) ) international, national, and regional organizations [e.g., International Maritime Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and sub-regional fisheries management organizations] must involve with finding solutions for preventing the accumulation of lost or abandoned fishing gears/ALDF. Plastic contamination is detected as one of the serious environmental issues ( UNEP, 2011 ). The conference of the United Nations Convention on Sustainable Development (Rio +20) raised the necessity of plastic pollution control in the ocean basins, including marine zones. It further highlighted (163) the implementation of the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). It states to conduct different initiatives by identifying suitable priorities for the management of marine pollution using scientific data or evidence by 2025. This kind of scientific literature review will act as reference data for prioritizing and implementing management activities accordingly at a global level.
On the other hand, the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution (MARPOL) focusing on activities of ships is the legislator's body useful in acquiring the above objective. That convention addresses following key areas which are directly and indirectly related to the plastic pollution control and prevention in the sea: management of garbage including plastic litter, prohibiting dumping and discarding of plastic litter into the sea with the involvement of member states, and responsibilities related to abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gears (ALDF) by minimizing the waste (including plastic debris, especially wastes/litter from fishing gears) received from capture fishery sector.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Article no. 70) states reducing the effects of plastic pollution on coastal and marine biodiversity using strategies (e.g., Strategic Environmental Assessments: SEAs and Environmental Impact Assessments: EIAs) to prevent marine pollution. Subsidiary party on Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) acts as the Scientific Advisory body of CBD. Following decisions were made at the 16 th meeting of SBSTTA for controlling pollution including plastic accumulation in marine and coastal zones on 2012: (i) monitoring and documentation on effects of debris on biodiversity and ecosystems, (ii) scientific research and feasible studies on management and controlling of plastic and other kinds of debris, (iii) regional level capacity building programs focusing on methods and approaches of preventing and controlling issues related to plastics and different kinds of litter accumulation.
Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) has also come to power with the implementation of following actions: (i) seeking for marine debris hotspots all over the world, (ii) assessing the effects of plastic and other kinds of litter on coastal and marine biodiversity, (iii) identification of methods and mechanism of controlling marine debris accumulating sources at the regional level, (iv) implementing an action plan to mitigate the pollution by debris deposition in the marine environment at the national level. The scientific council further recommended assessing the impacts on migratory species by marine debris, seeking emerging issues related to community awareness on marine debris accumulation, and identify best management practices on waste control for maritime ships and vessels. Although plastic pollution and waste management are interrelated components, international, legal constitution, or agreement focusing on entirely waste management has not been developed ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ).
However, several kinds of international initiatives focus on waste management, indirectly, or as a part of pollution control and prevention. UNEP council (25/8) has decided to apply a practical approach to waste management. They have addressed the national framework design under the theme of “shift from an end-of-pipe approach in waste management to an integrated waste management approach” ( UNEP, 2011 ). Mitigation of issues on marine plastic debris accumulation and plastic pollution are associated with waste management practices; thus, an internationally accepted, integrated waste management program has been recommended to address the above issue ( UNEP, 2011 ). Basel Convention is one of the most critical international legislation focused on hazardous waste and disposal. Solid plastic fragments are considered as hazardous waste with severe risks on human health ( UNEP, 2005 ). In 2008, the Basel convention implemented the Bali declaration on the theme of “Waste Management for Human Health and Livelihoods.” This declaration works for waste management. Since hazardous waste is composed of plastic debris, plastic pollution control is linked with the Basel convention. Global Partnership on Waste Management (GPWM) of UNEP opened a path for working collaboratively with the international and non-government parties for waste management that are considered as an alternative for plastic pollution control in the marine environment in 2010. Following actions were planned for implementation with a special focus on mitigation of waste accumulation and plastic pollution by GPWM: identification of related issues, suggest appropriate solutions to overcome the above-identified issues, disseminate the findings, develop the international support and involvement, awareness, political support, develop facilities, and capacity to trap wastes.
Honolulu Strategy acts as another global international framework and an initiative for working toward preventing and management of debris, including plastic wastes with the collaborative cooperation of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and UNEP. This initiative guides monitoring and mitigation of litter, including plastic debris. During 2012, the European Commission and 64 government bodies collectively agreed with the Manila declaration that addresses the accomplishment of the Global Program of UNEP's for the management of debris sources from land-based activities. Members of the Manila declaration also collectively agreed to formulate relevant national-level policies in controlling pollution, including marine debris accumulation, which harms marine ecosystems. Also, partners to the Manila declaration adopted in the implementation of the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) under the guidance of the Honolulu Strategy. It further included reducing pollution from ocean-based sources with following goals: (i) limiting contamination levels and possible effects from ocean-based sources responsible for the accumulation of debris including plastics into aquatic systems, (ii) reducing levels and impacts of marine debris including plastics on coasts, aquatic habitats, and biodiversity, and (iii) limitation of accumulation levels and effects of debris from solid wastes and land-based litter into the aquatic ecosystems.
4.2. Regional-scale initiatives
At the regional level, Regional Seas Program of UNEP proposed relevant activities for 13 regional seas: Mediterranean sea, Baltic sea, Black sea, Caspian sea, East Asian seas, Red sea, Eastern African sea, South Asian sea, Wider Caribbean sea, Northeast Atlantic sea, Gulf of Aden sea, Northwest Pacific sea, and Southeast Pacific sea. Coastal cleanup programs have been completed as a global project in all the above regions. European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive, MSFD, established in 2008, focuses on minimizing the amount of marine debris at a regional level. The directive aims at sustainable utilization of resources in the ecosystem while conserving ecosystems through the Ecosystem-Based Approach (EBA). This task is a collaborative effort of all European countries. Members are required to monitor marine zones and identify achievable targets by 2020. It further included the operational program for ensuring the targets are achieved. South Korea conducted a long-term project to address the issue of marine debris: an in-depth survey and monitoring, identification, prevention, elimination, treatment, and recycling of marine waste for ten years ( GEF, 2012 ). At the regional level, a discarded fishing gear collection project was implemented in Hawaii and South African Coasts through NOAA/MDP. Moreover, scientific studies are recommended to identify the distribution pattern of plastic pollutants in South America's estuarine ecosystems for effective management plans ( Chen, 2015 ; Costa and Barletta, 2015 , 2016 ). Barletta et al. (2019) also recommended the conservation plans for estuaries in South America focusing on annual variations of ecoline, retention recycling cycles, flush of environmental indicators, and effects on trophic webs over whole coverage of gradients of estuary ecosystems to overcome the emerging issues associated with pollution. Restoration of tidal and river forcing is recommended as the most appropriate decision for ecosystem rehabilitation by improving the quality of the estuarine environment in South America at the regional level ( Storm et al., 2005 ; Slater, 2016 ).
4.3. National-level initiatives
Most of the national level legislation addresses the issue of solid waste management and waste production while reducing plastic pollution in marine and coastal ecosystems. In the US, Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act and Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act are key legislative pieces important in mitigation of plastic pollution at the national level. In South Korea, the Practical Integrated System of Marine debris was established to prevent marine debris accumulation from 1999-2009, for ten years. Scotland developed a Scottish marine litter strategy in 2013. In Sri Lanka, national-level regulations on polythene and other types of plastic management were introduced in 2017. This legislation made following efforts under the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 with the 19 th amendment: (i) prohibition of manufacturing polythene products of 20 microns or below, food wrappers (lunch sheets), any bag with high density (grocery bags) and food containers, plates, cups, spoons from expanded Polystyrene (2034/33-35 and 38), (ii) prohibition of the burning of combustible and rejected matters including plastic (2034/36), and (iii) banning the use of polythene products as decorative items (2034/37) ( CEA, 2017 ).
Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 35 of 2008 is another national regulation to control, prevent, and manage pollution in the marine environment in Sri Lanka. Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA) is the apex party established by the government of Sri Lanka under the above act. MEPA is responsible for finding solutions and remedies for overcoming pollution-related issues in the marine zones of Sri Lanka. With the growth of oceanic pollution by plastics, invasive species, oil spills, ballast water, and maritime traffic in the coastal and marine environments, MEPA has modernized the Policy Strategies and National Action Plan for marine protection in Sri Lanka with the support of IUCN, to suit current scenario during August 2017–January 2018. This Policy Strategies and National Action Plan focus on addressing the issue of plastic pollution in marine water in Sri Lanka as one of grave concern ( IUCN, 2018 ). The capacity-building project was accomplished to manage the marine debris under four key activities: education and awareness, research and scientific study, creating facilities, and policy formulation ( IUCN, 2018 ). Short-life plastic bags are a serious concern among all forms of plastics; thus different control and preventive measures (e.g., the prohibition of polythene bags usage, applying charges, levy, and taxes) have been used by several countries: Switzerland, China, Italy, Rwanda, South Africa, Kenya, Congo, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, Mexico, some states in the USA, several states in India, Australia, Ireland, Denmark, South Korea, Romania, Japan, state of Sao Paolo in Brazil, and New Zealand, at a national level ( European Commission, 2013 ). Implementation of effective national-level initiatives by prioritizing site-specific management needs is recommended toward the plastic-free environment by the current study. Also, the approach on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) (Please refer to the section of “ EPR towards producer responsibility” for more details) includes a scheme of plastic container deposition in Asia, Europe, Australia, US, and Canada as a national-level plastic pollution control measure.
4.4. Eco-friendly concepts for controlling plastic pollutio; Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic
The 3Rs of plastic wastes are a major environmentally friendly concept toward plastic-free ecosystems. Different strategies have been introduced as aligning with this 3Rs concept. Reducing plastic and packaging material usage is one of the key alternatives under the EPR (Please refer to the section of “ EPR towards producer responsibility” for more details). Actions of stakeholders related to plastic production and usage can play a vital role in reducing and reusing plastics. These actions can be either individual or collective activities toward reducing plastic accumulation in the ocean. Product manufacturers and sellers are recommended to follow a sustainable environmental management program with the production and selling. Eco-labeled products allow consumers to distinguish environmentally friendly, non-polluting products for making sustainable decisions during the purchasing of items or goods. Over 25 programs are conducted under the Global Eco-Labeling Network (GEN) toward the plastic-free environment. Ten countries use 43 types of greener packaging labels ( GEN, 2019 ) by signifying the effort in reducing plastic pollution at the national level. Also, New Zealand has awarded eco-labels for plastic products having recycling potential. The environmentally friendly and pollution-free packaging materials and products can be sustained through green procurement. Accordingly, improvement of recycling capacity and minimum packaging is required on green procurement. Biodegradable plastic packaging materials are also possible options for selected plastic products ( Mudgal et al., 2012 ) to control plastic debris accumulation.
On the other hand, positive incentives (financial or physical) are useful in promoting the collection and recycling process of plastics. If these initiatives are encouraged further at the national, regional, and global levels, it will provide more economic benefits to the society as an additional advantage, while preventing the accumulation of plastics in marine and coastal ecosystems.
4.5. EPR towards a plastic-free environment
EPR concept addresses the responsibility towards a greener and cleaner environment even after completion of the production chain. The manufacturers of plastic products and packaging items or material can be encouraged to collect packaging (e.g., food and beverage containers) and recycle plastic through funding and operational activities toward the EPR. Currently, developed countries (Japan, Europe, and Canada) use EPR programs, while the developing nations still do not practice this approach on a large scale. However, this approach is one of the best practices for minimizing the plastic accumulation rate in the environment. This paper recommends establishing a sound strategic mechanism focusing on the EPR concept, mainly for developing countries at the national level. Responsibilities for collecting, recycling, reusing, and managing plastic debris are usually held by stakeholder groups such as producers, importers, suppliers, and brand owners. EPR programs can focus on residential areas and public places such as markets, city plaza, pedestrian areas, municipal parks, and city squares, which experience higher accumulation of plastic debris, including packaging matter ( British Columbia Recycling Regulation Amendment, 2011 ). Segregated litter bins and recyclable plastic collecting centers must be established in a sustainable manner (toward EPR) to prevent plastic waste disposal.
4.6. Collaborative approach for plastic-free zones: engagement with business companies
One of the most crucial strategies for controlling plastic pollution is the engagement with private companies and business associations related to plastic products and packaging items. As stakeholder parties, these internationally recognized companies and associations can play a vital role in the management of plastic litter by working with government agencies collaboratively. In the USA, the American Chemistry Council had conducted awareness programs on reuse and recycle plastic bottles. Plastic Europe is one such internationally recognized association, and they conduct series of programs (e.g., campaign for “zero plastic in landfills” program on plastic pellet treatment at the production line) focusing on prevention and management of marine litter accumulation ( European Commission, 2013 ). Since there is a lack of more information, this study recommends the establishment of powerful Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with collective engagement between the government agencies and private-sector for large-scale scientific research projects toward controlling the plastic pollution and waste management in a country level.
4.7. Economic instruments
Ordinances and fees are kinds of instruments or tools to prevent usage of plastic items and containers. Banning and penalties are other options for plastic pollution control, which acts as an enforceable mitigation measure. Some countries designed policies or legislation to ban the use and import of plastic items, including bags, at the national level (please refer to the section of “ National level initiatives ” for more details). Prohibition of improperly discarding and removal of plastic wastes is another strategy for preventing the accumulation of plastics. Most EPR projects have already introduced a penalty system for producers for violation of rules and regulations related to waste management and improper disposal. The user fee payment system can be introduced to manage plastic wastes based on the concept of charging/fine for consuming plastic items. The introduction of the secondary market for recycled materials is another alternative to reduce the plastic level in the environment. Plastic producers have the responsibility to recycle plastic products and packaging items (EPR) ( UNEP, 2018 ). As a result, they can financially invest in feasible studies, research, and developments to identify innovative alternatives as secondary materials. Sustainable Materials Management (SMS) is another initiative for pollution control toward a cleaner environment ( UNEP, 2018 ). Japan is one of the developed countries following the SMS using the legal framework since 1997.
4.8. Awareness and capacity building campaigns
Changing attitudes toward conservation and sustainable management of the environment is one of the potent tools in enhancing the quality of marine and coastal ecosystems. Improving the public awareness on litter generation, removal, and effects on marine and coastal environment is such kind of strategy for creating new attitudes among local communities. Blue Flag is such an international program conducted in Europe to reduce marine and coastal debris accumulation ( Blue Flag, 2019 ). According to the guidelines of this program, facilitating the segregation of recyclable plastic matter and positioning the disposal bins and containers are compulsory actions. Information related to this issue (e.g., effects from the accumulation of marine debris, marine debris accumulating sources, different approaches on mitigating overload of plastic debris, and the role of a local community toward this issue) can be publicized via social media, local media, distributing printed materials, and displaying in public areas. Beach cleaning and waste removal campaigns are also conducted with the participation of stakeholders as a step of awareness and capacity building of the local community on this emerging issue. However, the success and effectiveness of this kind of cleaning and debris removal programs depend on the involvement of the local community. As a basement for the future, this paper recommends incorporating environmental education into the syllabus of schools and making all possible efforts to adapt the mindset and attitudes of children on protecting the environment, starting from the nursery and/or primary school stage, because the primary level of children is the most effective stage to make changes in the ideas and attributes toward conservation of the environment.
4.9. Scientific investigations and monitoring
Scientific studies and researches are other approaches to address the issue of plastic pollution in a systematic mechanism. Still, knowledge gaps remain in some aspects (e.g., transport, sources, fate, impacts, and solutions of plastic in the environment) related to plastic pollution. Scientific knowledge and evidence of all aspects of plastic pollution would provide clear overall snapshot and guidance to stakeholders (e.g., local community, policymakers, politicians, consumers, and manufacturers) for implementing most suitable behavioral, technological, and policy solutions to address the issue of marine plastics effectively ( IUCN, 2020 ). Continuous research and scientific studies with frequent monitoring is a significant approach in the management of plastic pollution. Feasible studies on innovations would help to identify the related technology, alternative materials, or products to replace plastics. Authors recommend comprehensive scientific studies, regular monitoring of ecosystems, and innovations with the support of governments, private sectors, NGOs, and international organizations to efficiently address plastic pollution.
5. Conclusion
The marine and coastal ecosystems are complex and dynamic ecosystems that provide ecological and commercial values with services by ensuring human wellbeing. Currently, all oceans and many coastal zones are adversely affected by different kinds of natural and anthropogenic activities. Industrialization and urbanization are recognized as major factors for human-induced pollution, including plastic debris accumulation in the marine and coastal habitats. Estuaries are one of the major coastal ecosystems affected by plastic pollution. Currently, plastic pollution is caused by primary and secondary sources with a terrestrial or ocean-based origin. Megaplastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic (in primary and secondary forms) are major plastic pollutants that can be classified based on size variations. Megaplastic, macroplastic, and mesoplastic are bulk plastic debris, while primary and secondary microplastics are minute (microscopically observed) pollutants with the size range of 1–6 mm or <1 mm. Larger debris are also subjected to the formation of microplastics through physical, chemical, and biological processes. Mainly, estuarine ecosystems in some countries (e.g., several countries of the South American and Asian region) are negatively affected by the distribution of microplastics in sediment and water column.
Plastic pollution causes various ecological impacts at the individual, assemblage, and ecosystem levels. Since the size of microplastics is similar to the food particles which are consumed by most marine and coastal organisms in lower trophic levels, these micro-contaminants are highly susceptible to accumulation in such biota through ingestion with harmful impacts. Microplastic would also concentrate on humans and other organisms representing higher trophic levels through food chains and webs. Plastic pollutants interact with other toxic chemical compounds such as POPs, antibiotics, and heavy metal ions, and gradually produce the eco-toxicological effects. Accumulation of plastic debris causes not only negative ecological consequences to the ecosystem but also threatening to the socio-economic aspects of human life in various ways. However, the ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are interconnected.
The necessity of mitigation and managing plastic pollution in marine and coastal environments at global, regional, and national scales is widely recognized. Recently, various international organizations and non-profit social groups actively work together with the kind mind of saving the ocean from plastic pollution in different countries and regions. Regional level mechanisms have already recommended evaluating the estuarine contamination by focusing on plastic pollution for the brackish water ecosystems in some countries such as South America. At the national level, some governments have declared legislations to control the plastic pollution issue by prohibiting the usage of plastic products and enhancing reuse and recycling of plastics with novel technologies at regional and national levels. Implementation of environmental governance with pollution control was recommended after thoroughly considering biological and ecological settings of respective ecosystems in countries like South America. However, initiatives on plastic pollution controlling and prevention need to be further improved at aforesaid levels. Therefore, the current study recommends selected productive approaches to address this issue with sound attention from different stakeholders. Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic pollutants, encouraging the collection of re-usable plastic debris, EPR towards manufacturer accountability, eco-friendly programs through Public-Private Partnerships, awareness and capacity building campaigns focusing on the cleaner environment, scientific studies on nature and severity of this emerging environmental issue, and innovations are suggested as ultimate, effective solutions for reducing and controlling the plastic pollution in these valuable aquatic ecosystems.
Finally, this review paper reveals the overall scenario of global marine and coastal plastic pollution under different aspects. This secondary data would be further useful as baseline information for the site-specific plastic pollution control and management programs. Human acts are one component of the biosphere; thus, our responsibility is to provide the maximum contribution for zero plastic, cleaner, and the greener environment as an eco-friendly living-being.
Declarations
Author contribution statement.
All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interest statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
No additional information is available for this paper.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to acknowledge Uva Wellasse University for all supports.
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Does marine environmental research meet the challenges of marine pollution induced by the COVID-19 pandemic? Comparison analysis before and during the pandemic based on bibliometrics
Affiliations.
- 1 School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China; Institute of Carbon Neutrality Economics and Energy Management, School of Economics and Management, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, Xinjiang 830046, People's Republic of China; Institute for Energy Economics and Policy, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China. Electronic address: [email protected].
- 2 School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China; Institute for Energy Economics and Policy, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China.
- 3 School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China; Institute of Carbon Neutrality Economics and Energy Management, School of Economics and Management, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, Xinjiang 830046, People's Republic of China; Institute for Energy Economics and Policy, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, People's Republic of China. Electronic address: [email protected].
- 4 Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
- PMID: 36057155
- PMCID: PMC9376348
- DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114046
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has brought enormous challenges to the global marine environment. Various responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have led to increased marine pollution. Has the COVID-19 pandemic affected marine pollution research? This work comprehensively reviewed marine pollution publications in the Web of Science database before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results show that the COVID-19 outbreak has influenced the marine pollution research by: (i) increasing the number of publications; (ii) reshaping different countries' roles in marine pollution research; (iii) altering the hotspots of marine pollution research. The ranking of countries with high productivity in the marine pollution research field changed, and developed economies are the dominant players both before and after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in this field. Other high-productivity countries, with the exception of China, have higher international cooperation rates in marine pollution research than those before the pandemic. Microplastic pollution has been the biggest challenge of marine pollution and has been aexplored in greater depth during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the mining results of marine pollution publications show the mitigation of plastic pollution in the marine environment remains the main content requires future research. Finally, this paper puts forward corresponding suggestions for the reference of researchers and practitioners to improve the global ability to respond to the challenges posed by the pandemic to the marine environment.
Keywords: International cooperation; Microplastic; Ocean pollution; Pandemic; Scientific research; Visual analysis.
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Conflict of interest statement
Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Graphical abstract
Workflow of the system analysis.
Annual number and annual growth…
Annual number and annual growth of publications in marine pollution research (2010−2021).
Geographical distribution of marine pollution…
Geographical distribution of marine pollution publications, (a) Annual number of publications (2010–2019); (b)…
The international cooperation rates during…
The international cooperation rates during 2010–2019, 2015–2019 and 2020–2021.
The cooperation graph of 10…
The cooperation graph of 10 highly productive countries during 2010–2019, 2015–2019 and 2020–2021.
Keyword clustering network graph during…
Keyword clustering network graph during 2018–2019 (left) and 2020–2021 (right).
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Global trends and prospects of community participation in marine protected areas: a bibliometric analysis.
1. Introduction
2. materials and methods, 2.1. source of data, 2.2. data analysis, 3.1. temporal and spatial distribution of literature releases, 3.2. publication characteristics, 3.3. visualization analysis of research hotspots and theme evolution.
Cluster | Keywords | Key Points in Representative Literature |
---|
Cluster 1 (Red) | Co-management, coral reefs, resilience, social–ecological systems, perceptions, coastal management, Caribbean, ecosystem services, management effectiveness, tourism, community involvement, institutions, marine protected area, stakeholder participation | Twenty-five years of community-based and cooperative coral reef conservation in the Philippines demonstrates that effective coastal resource management requires a combination of government support, community participation, environmental education, and economic incentives [ ]. |
Cluster 2 (Green) | Governance, fisheries, climate change, management, ecotourism, biodiversity, sustainability, coastal, ocean, common-pool resources, food security, sustainable development, vulnerability | Marine resource management in marine protected areas and locally managed marine areas can mitigate ecological degradation from climate change and promote sustainable fisheries [ ]. |
Cluster 3 (Blue) | Community-based management, community-based, Indonesia, conservation planning, livelihoods, local knowledge, Fiji, coral triangle, customary management, adaptive management, decentralization, monitoring | The failure to effectively include local communities in the design and implementation of relevant measures is one of the reasons for the ineffective management of marine protected areas. Community-based marine protected areas and community-based marine resource management can effectively address the alarming depletion of coastal resources [ ]. |
Cluster 4 (Yellow) | Marine protected area, fisheries management, ecosystem-based management, artisanal fisheries, community participation, fisheries co-management, integrated coastal management, stakeholders, Brazil, marine spatial planning | Improving marine resource management by enabling local communities to work with state or regional partners to reduce fishing is a priority for Hawaii and American Samoa. Community-based fisheries co-management is an important step toward improving the sustainability of global fisheries [ ]. |
Cluster 5 (Purple) | Marine conservation, Philippines, community-based conservation, small-scale fisheries, Marxan, systematic conservation, environmental justice, Oceania | Community-based conservation means marine conservation based on the participation, knowledge, and priorities of local communities and is more conducive to enhancing the ecological and social benefits of MPAs than conventional “people-free” conservation [ ]. |
Cluster 6 (Cyan) | Conservation, participation, Mexico, citizen science, community-based monitoring, local ecological knowledge | Local community volunteers (usually fishers) use simple methods (e.g., visual census) with professional marine biologists to regularly monitor and assess coral reef protection in the Philippines. Community-collected fish data typically have higher variance and higher abundance than data collected by biologists. Community-based monitoring can inform the development of management actions (e.g., increased enforcement, stronger organizations, etc.) and encourage stakeholder cooperation [ ]. |
4. Discussion
4.1. research method application.
Method | | Definition | Advantage | Disadvantage | Example | Publication Year of the Examples |
---|
Qualitative analysis | In-depth interview | An in-depth interview is a direct and personal interview used to reveal the motivation, beliefs, and attitudes of the respondents to a certain question [ ]. | In-depth interviews are considered non-standard because they are flexible and allow the questions to be rearranged according to the role of each interviewee [ ]. | Finding interviewees who will contribute to relevant research and making them willing to be interviewed is difficult, requiring a high level of interviewing skills and experience on the interviewer’s part [ ]. | Syamsi et al. [ ] conducted in-depth interviews with 18 local community members and government officers about their perceptions of the Korea–Indonesia ecotourism project. The results demonstrated the positive impact of education and community participation. | 2021 |
Thematic analysis | Thematic analysis is a method of pattern recognition in data. The themes are summarized and classified and become new categories for analysis [ ]. | Thematic analysis can explain the reasons behind a phenomenon or problem and reveal the laws of human social behavior and the logic of their thoughts. | It is difficult for researchers to determine which aspects of the data to focus on or which theoretical frameworks to use for their analyses. Thematic analysis is more prone to inconsistent or inappropriate use of terminology [ ]. | A thematic analysis was used to determine vulnerability risk and the relationship between the attitudes of local people toward designating the Anambas area as an MPA [ ]. | 2021 |
SWOT | SWOT is a strategic planning method used to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats involved in a project [ ]. | SWOT maximizes strengths and opportunities, minimizes external threats, and can turn weaknesses into strengths. It takes advantage of opportunities while reducing weaknesses [ ]. | The results of this method are often rough and brief, making the analysis superficial and inaccurate [ ]. | Micheli and Niccolini [ ] used the SWOT framework to identify the pressures and leverage of biological performance in a Mediterranean marine protected area and search for opportunities to improve this performance. | 2013 |
Quantitative analysis | Structural equation modeling | Structural equation modeling is a theoretical exploratory model that identifies the potential multivariate relationship between the latent and observable variables from an inductive scope [ ]. | SEM can simultaneously handle latent factors that are difficult to measure directly and model the links between them. | This method requires the researcher to set up a causal relationship between variables based on a theory or hypothesis. This setting process is highly subjective [ ]. | Masud et al. [ ] applied SEM to identify factors influencing community participation in managing community-based ecotourism for sustainable MPA development in Peninsular Malaysia. | 2016 |
Principal component analysis | PCA is a statistical method used to analyze the correlation between the variables of dimensions and each dimension through dimension reduction [ ]. | Through PCA, large sets of variables can be reduced to integrated sets that maintain as much information as possible to help explore the relationships between the variables [ ]. | The individual principal components obtained with PCA are usually linear combinations of the original variables, and the meaning of these principal components is often less intuitive and more difficult to interpret. | Islam et al. [ ] recognized the critical factors of MPA governance through PCA. The results showed that local participation played an essential role in successfully managing MPAs in Malaysia. | 2017 |
Generalized linear models | GLMs are extensions of linear models that use link function to establish a connection between the response and predictors [ ]. | The data used in a GLM are not limited. This allows for data with non-linear and non-constant variance structures [ ]. | This model may have computational efficiency issues when dealing with large-scale datasets [ ]. | Giglio et al. [ ] used GLM to verify the perceptions of different stakeholders on the effectiveness of management in three marine protected areas in Brazil. They found that communication between stakeholders and managers was crucial to fair management. | 2019 |
4.2. Key Lessons from Community Participation Cases
4.3. the effect of community participation in mpas, 4.4. future research prospects, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.
MPA | Marine Protected Area |
UN | United Nations |
IF | Impact Factor |
CBMRM | Community-based Marine Resource Management |
SWOT | Strengths, Weakness, Opportunity, Threats |
SEM | Structural Equation Modelling |
PCA | Principal Component Analysis |
GLM | Generalized Linear Model |
RAP | Representative Areas Program |
WCS | Wildlife Conservation Society |
GIS | Geographic Information Systems |
MP-RWEPA | Management Plan of the Right Whale Environmental Protection Area |
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Click here to enlarge figure
Journal Name | Counts | Research Organization | Counts | Subject Category | Counts |
---|
Ocean Coastal Management (IF: 4.6) | 77 | James Cook University | 48 | Environmental Sciences | 233 |
Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems (IF:2.4) | 29 | University of California System | 24 | Marine Freshwater Biology | 124 |
Coastal Management (IF: 2.5) | 29 | Nature Conservancy | 19 | Water Resources | 113 |
Frontiers in Marine Science (IF: 3.7) | 24 | Duke University | 18 | Ecology | 109 |
Biological Conservation (IF: 5.9) | 17 | CGIAR | 16 | Oceanography | 106 |
Conservation Biology (IF: 6.3) | 17 | NOAA USA | 16 | Biodiversity Conservation | 101 |
Ecology and Society (IF: 4.1) | 16 | University of British Columbia | 16 | Environmental Studies | 69 |
Environmental Conservation (IF: 2.7) | 14 | University of Queensland | 16 | Fisheries | 31 |
Plos One (IF: 3.7) | 13 | University of Hawaii System | 15 | Multidisciplinary Sciences | 21 |
Biodiversity and Conservation (IF: 3.4) | 12 | University of Rhode Island | 15 | Green Sustainable Science Technology | 14 |
Marine Protected Area | Country | Year of Establishment | Year of Literature Publication | The Content of Community Participation |
---|
Marine protected area network in Kubulau District [ ] | Fiji | 2005 | 2013 | The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) cooperated with communities to establish an MPA network that is locally implemented and managed in the Kubulau District. It improved the resilience of coral reefs to climate change by combining the permanent no-take areas with customary harvested closures. |
Puerto Morelos Reef Marine Protected Area [ ] | Mexico | 1998 | 2008 | This MPA is the first to be established through a community-based approach in Mexico. It was initially established to protect artificially threatened coral reefs, and the local communities participated in sustainably utilizing the coral reefs via collaborative co-management. |
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park [ ] | Australia | 1975 | 2017 | The Representative Areas Program (RAP) in Australia dealt with environmental issues of community involvement and participatory planning. It ensured that community residents could understand the action plan and put forward valuable recommendations before formulating a draft zoning plan. The communities were invited to discuss the economic, political, and social influence of the zoning plan after the draft was published. As a result, the final zoning plan was created based on expert views and community participation. |
Moheli Marine Park [ ] | Union of the Comoros | 1998 | 2005 | Community members participated in boundary delineation and regulation-making in the Moheli Marine Park. Village representatives were selected as “ecoguards” who would be responsible for monitoring their marine resources, implementing park regulations, and representing the interests of the local people. |
Right Whale Environmental Protection Area [ ] | Brazil | 2000 | 2022 | Fishers were invited to participate in workshops to discuss the difficulties and needs of small-scale fisheries, their relationship history with the RWEPA, and their expectations for MPA management. The management actions, guidelines, norms, and MPA regions became systematic based on the information provided by participants through three workshop stages. |
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Share and Cite
Jiang, X.; Liu, F.; Yu, J.; Zhang, K.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Q. Global Trends and Prospects of Community Participation in Marine Protected Areas: A Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7772. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177772
Jiang X, Liu F, Yu J, Zhang K, Zhang Z, Wang Q. Global Trends and Prospects of Community Participation in Marine Protected Areas: A Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7772. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177772
Jiang, Xun, Fangming Liu, Jing Yu, Kuncheng Zhang, Zhaohui Zhang, and Quanbin Wang. 2024. "Global Trends and Prospects of Community Participation in Marine Protected Areas: A Bibliometric Analysis" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7772. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177772
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Marine Environmental Research | Journal - ScienceDirect.com
Plastic pollution in the marine environment
Marine Environmental Research publishes original research papers on chemical, physical, and biological interactions in the oceans and coastal waters.The journal serves as a forum for new information on biology, chemistry, and toxicology and syntheses that advance understanding of marine environmental processes.. Submission of multidisciplinary studies is encouraged.
Microplastic pollution in seawater and marine organisms ...
A global horizon scan of issues impacting marine and ...
The marine environment includes the waters of seas and estuaries, the seabed and its subsoils, and all marine wildlife and its sea and coastal habitats. Marine ecosystems perform a number of key environmental functions, and is a vital resource for life on Earth. The story of oceans is the story of life; therefore, the ultimate aim is to keep ...
About the journal. Marine Environmental Research publishes original research papers on chemical, physical, and biological interactions in the oceans and coastal waters. The journal serves as a forum for new information on biology, chemistry, and toxicology and syntheses that advance understanding of marine ….
Marine Environmental Research | Citations: 4,264 | Marine Environmental Research publishes original research papers on chemical, physical, and biological interactions in the oceans and coastal waters.
Marine Environmental Research
Sustainable Development Goal 14 of the United Nations aims to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Achieving this goal will require ...
2005 — Volumes 59-60. Previous. Page 1 of 3. Read the latest articles of Marine Environmental Research at ScienceDirect.com, Elsevier's leading platform of peer-reviewed scholarly literature.
With the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, human activities have caused marine pollution in three ways: land source, air source, and sea source, leading to the problem of marine environments. Remote sensing, with its wide coverage and fast and accurate monitoring capability, continues to be an important tool for marine environment monitoring and evaluation research. This ...
Monitoring the state of oceans and their evolution in space and time is of fundamental importance as they are severely impacted by climate change, showing an increase in temperature, acidity and stratification. The role of metrology in the marine sector is relevant for helping oceanographers consolidate measurement approaches already in place by introducing concepts like metrological ...
Marine Plastic Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Policy Issues
Ocean sciences - Latest research and news
" This paper is an important contribution to the science on ocean protection and highlights the need for countries to work together to protect at least 30% of the global ocean by 2030. In the UK we are at the forefront of marine protection, and are leading the Global Ocean Alliance of more than forty nations supporting this 30 by 30 target.
Effect of an environmental microplastic mixture from the Seine River and one of the main associated plasticizers, dibutylphthalate, on the sentinel species Hediste diversicolor. Isabelle Métais, Hanane Perrein-Ettajani, Mohammed Mouloud, Coraline Roman, ... Amélie Châtel. Article 106159.
A large number of plastic debris enters the global ocean and have been destroying marine ecosystems (Chowdhury et al., 2021), posing a new threat to the marine environment. Recent research provides evidence that the overuse of PPE during the COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating plastic pollution in the marine environment (De-la-Torre and Aragaw ...
Plastic pollution in the marine environment - PMC
In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the current status of plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem to make aware people of a plastic-free, healthy blue ocean in the near future.
The impact factor of Marine Environmental Research, and other metrics like the H-Index and TQCC, alongside relevant research trends, citation patterns, altmetric scores, Twitter account and similar journals. ... (Based on citations to the other journals in the most recent 30 papers in this journal, at least if metadata about citations were ...
This paper contributes to the global understanding of plastic pollution by (1) presenting an overview of the current policies, solid waste management practices, and socio-economic awareness, (2) critical evaluation of the published research on litter and plastic in the marine environment of India, and (3) identify knowledge gaps and present ...
Furthermore, the mining results of marine pollution publications show the mitigation of plastic pollution in the marine environment remains the main content requires future research. Finally, this paper puts forward corresponding suggestions for the reference of researchers and practitioners to improve the global ability to respond to the ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are effective tools for preserving marine organisms and ecosystems against the background of climate change and intense human activities. Community participation is a helpful management approach for MPAs and has received substantial attention from researchers worldwide. To identify the research status of the field of community participation in MPAs, we reviewed ...