definition speech event

The Applied Linguistics Repository

Spoken english: speech event.

Lecture notes

Course: Spoken English

Lecturer: Keith Richards

Topic: The Speech Event

These notes are extracts only and do not include the arguments developed in the lectures. Neither do they include handouts or workshop activities. They are an additional resource designed primarily for those who attended the relevant lectures.

Important note

The subject of these notes is the speech event rather than the ethnography of communication, which is the broader field of which it is a part. My choice has been determined partly by considerations of time and practicality but also by a consideration of the place that the speech event plays in the ethnography of communication. It is generally accepted as the central concept and in my view represents the best introduction to the field. Duranti sums up the situation succinctly:

For many researchers, the speech event still represents a level of analysis that has the advantage of preserving information about the social system as a whole while at the same time allowing the researcher to get into details of the personal acts

Duranti 1988:219

In view of this, I strongly advise you to follow up the lecture and workshop by reading either Saville-Troike’s excellent brief introduction to the broader field in the McKay collection (1996) or her earlier book (1989) dedicated to the subject. Alternatively, or in addition, you could read Keating (2001).

Review and introduction

In the first week we looked at aspects of communicative competence at the broadest level. This week we’ll move on to attempt to identify appropriate models for describing specific instances of language in use. Just by way of a general reminder and as an indication of the task ahead, here is one attempt to capture the range of relevant components:

Components of communication

1 Linguistic knowledge

(a) Verbal elements

(b) Nonverbal elements

(c) Patterns of possible variants (in all elements and their organization)

(e) Meanings of variants in particular situations

2 Interaction skills

(a) Perception of salient features in communicative situations

(b) Selection and interpretation of forms appropriate to specific situations, roles, and relationships (rules for the use of speech)

(c) Discourse organization and processes

(d) Norms of interaction and interpretation

(e) Strategies for achieving goals

3 Cultural knowledge

(a) Social structure

(b) Values and attitudes

(c) Cognitive maps/schemata

(d) Enculturation processes (transmission of knowledge and skills)

(Saville-Troike 1989: 24)

If we listen to the way people speak, it soon becomes apparent that there are certain activities where interaction seems to be organised in recognisable ways, with rules about what can and cannot be said. We know, for example, that there are accepted ways of issuing and accepting invitations, of making a toast, of making introductions, and so on. This is what lies behind the idea of a speech event, the subject of this week’s sessions.

Speech events in everyday talk

In fact, we use terms which refer to speech events all the time, and these carry a useful semantic load; for example, each of the following utterances refers to a specific speech events. Decide what the relevant interactional rules are:

‘I was late for her lecture .’

‘We had a wonderful chat .’

‘Did you hear the announcement? ’

Sometimes we take for granted that others know the relevant rules and therefore leave them unstated. If I say, W didn’t have much of a conversation — all he wanted to talk about was his model soldiers,’ I take it as understood that topics of conversation are normally negotiated by participants and that as a result they usually cover different subjects.

The interesting thing about speech events is that they bring together social and linguistic aspects, as Hymes noted:

A general theory of the interaction of language and social life must encompass the multiple relations between linguistic means and social meaning. The relations within a particular community or personal repertoire are an empirical problem, calling for a mode of description that is jointly ethnographic and linguistic.

Hymes 1986:39

Towards a definition

Various definitions of speech events have been offered, and the following discussion is based on those taken from core texts. We begin with three that, taken together, provide a reasonable overview:

The basic unit for the analysis of verbal interaction in speech communities is the speech event ... The speech event is to the analysis of verbal interaction what the sentence is to grammar. When compared with the sentence it represents an extension in size of the basic analytical unit from single utterances to stretches of utterances, as well as a shift in focus from emphasis on text to emphasis on interaction. Speech event analysis focuses on the exchange between speakers

Gumperz 1986: 16-17

At the level of ethnographic description, verbal behavior in all societies can be categorized in terms of speech events: units of verbal behavior bounded in time and space. Events vary in the degree to which they are isolable. They range from ritual situations where behavior is largely predetermined to casual everyday talk. Yet all verbal behavior is governed by social norms specifying participant roles, rights and duties vis-?-vis each other, permissible topics, appropriate ways of speaking and ways of introducing information. Such norms are context and network specific, so that the psycholinguistic notion of individuals relying on their own personal knowledge of the world to make sense of talk in context is an oversimplification which does not account for the very real interactive constraints that govern everyday verbal behavior.

Gumperz 1982: 164-5

A single event is defined by a unified set of components throughout, beginning with the same general purpose of communication, the same general topic, and involving the same participants, generally using the same language variety, maintaining the same tone or key and the same rules for interaction, in the same setting.

Saville-Troike 1989: 27

Gumperz’s comment on the way in which social norms govern verbal behaviour is particularly important, since this is the relationship upon which the concept is based. It is also the reason why the analysis of speech events has played such a central role in the ethnography of communication. Notice, too, his emphasis on the interactive nature of such events within what is a very wide range, from the entirely predictable (ritual) to the more or less open (casual talk). Valuable as these insights are, however, when we look for a definition of the speech event, Gumperz is able to offer nothing more specific than, ‘units of verbal behavior bounded in time and space.’ Taken with the proviso that such events may not be isolable, this leaves the issue of definition pretty much in the air. For a more positive formulation we need to turn to Saville-Troike, whose repetition of the term ‘same’ makes her definition nothing if not consistent. Even so, working from this definition alone, I’m not sure that it would be easy to provide examples of speech events.

Duranti’s comments are worth noting because of their reminder that speech is central to so many of the social activities we engage in, to the extent that some are actually constituted through talk:

The basic assumption of a speech-event analysis of language use is that an understanding of the form and content of everyday talk in its various manifestations implies an understanding of the social activities in which speaking takes place ... Such activities, however, are not simply ‘accompanied’ by verbal interaction they are also shaped by it: there are many ways, that is, in which speech has a role in the constitution of a social event. The most obvious cases are perhaps gossip sessions and telephone conversations, neither of which could take place if talk were not exchanged. But even the most physically oriented activities such as sport events or hunting expeditions rely heavily on verbal communication for the participants' successful coordination around some common task.

Duranti 1988: 218.

Although it does not mention this issue, one of the questions this raises is that of definition because while some of the activities we engage in are very easy to label and to describe, others are more problematic. The same might be said of speech events.

I’ve chosen the following because I found it amusing when I first read it and because it raises the interesting question of how precise our labels need to be. It could just be categorised as ‘small talk’, but in this case it’s clear that certain extra rules are in play that apply to talking to royalty, so I suppose we might characterise it as ‘making small talk with the reigning monarch’. Try to work out the rules yourself and compare your conclusions with mine.

01 Q: Have you been riding today, Mr Greville?

02 G: No, Madam, I have not.

03 Q: It was a fine day.

04 G: Yes, Ma’am, a very fine day.

05 Q: It was rather cold though.

06 G: ( Like Polonius ) It was rather cold, Madam.

07 Q: Your sister, Lady Francis Egerton, rides, I think, does she not?

08 G: She does ride sometimes, Madam.

09 ( A pause, when I took the lead, though adhering to the same

10 same topic .)

11 G: Has your Majesty been riding to-day?

12 Q: ( With animation ) Oh, yes, a very long ride.

13 G: Has your Majesty got a nice horse?

14 Q: Oh, a very nice horse.

Brett, S. (ed). 1987. The Faber Book of Diaries . London: Faber & Faber.

One way of checking the rules you’ve identified is to find an example where they’re broken and see what the interactional consequences of this are. The following is just such a case, and you might like to see which of the rules you’ve identified are being violated here.

The exchange in question took place in 1960s in England and involved a very popular comedian, Tommy Cooper. Traditionally, the monarch would attend a number of ‘important’ national events, including the Royal Variety Performance and, a few weeks later, the (football) Cup Final. At the end of the former, stars of the show would line up to meet the Queen, having first been informed of the relevant interactional rules (identical to those which applied in the above exchange). Upon being told by the Queen that she had found him very funny, Cooper asked her whether she had really found him funny and, receiving a positive reply, sought further confirmation, to the noticeable discomfort of her attendants and others in the party. At this point, the conversation developed along these lines:

Cooper: May I ask your majesty a personal question?

(Awkward silence)

Queen: (Frostily) So far as I may allow.

Cooper: Do you enjoy football, ma’am?

Queen: No, as a matter of fact I don’t.

Cooper: Well in that case can I have your Cup Final tickets?

(General laughter)

Goffman (1974) has described such behaviour in terms of ‘frames’, which answer the question ‘What is happening here’ and represent the way in which we structure our experience. In the example above Tommy Cooper is ‘breaking frame’. The awkward silence here and the frosty reception are significant both socially and as part of the setting up of the punchline, but the joke has already been prepared for in the earlier establishment of Cooper’s role as a ‘funny man’. We can see a contrast between his behaviour here and that of Greville, whose tortuous efforts to keep to the rules make the earlier example so amusing. It seems to me that the rules in the Queen Victoria example (which don’t seem to have changed) are pretty straightforward: let the Queen take the lead unless a pause in the conversation indicates that a switch is permissible, but make sure you keep to the same topic — and whatever happens, don’t disagree. Tommy Cooper not only takes the lead but selects his own topic (and marks this as a ‘personal’ one).

The SPEAKING model

This is the best known model for analysing speech events. Hymes, who developed it, referred to it as an etic grid and explained the need for such descriptive apparatus as follows:

Even the ethnographies that we have, though almost never focused on speaking, show us that communities differ significantly in ways of speaking, in patterns of repertoire and switching, in the roles and meanings of speech ... Since there is no systematic understanding of the ways in which communities differ in these respects, and of the deeper relationships such differences may disclose, we have it to create. We need taxonomies of speaking, and descriptions adequate to support and test them

Hymes (1986:42-43)

S ituation 3 Setting

P articipants 5 Speaker, or sender

6 Addressor

7 Hearer, or receiver, or audience

8 Addressee

E nds 9 Purposes — outcomes

10 Purposes — goals

A ct sequence 1 Message form

2 Message content

K ey 11 Key

I nstrumentalities 12 Channels

13 Forms of speech

N orms 14 Norms of interaction

15 Norms of interpretation

G enres 16 Genres

The order here is based on the acronym, but numbers refer to the order in which these components are introduced in Hymes (1986).

Speech event components

One of the things which has always impressed me about Hymes’ SPEAKING model is the subtlety of the distinctions within it: the beauty of the description lies in the divisions within each of the main components. The following comments highlight the main points I made in the lecture:

Hymes’ distinction between setting and scene is an important one. Setting refers to the physical context in which the interaction takes place and may influence the sort of talk that is allowable (e.g. religious building vs bar or caf?). Scene is also part of the situation but its locus is psychological rather than physical. Hymes points out that the same physical setting might be the location for different psychological scenes. Within the same setting participants may move from formal to informal, festive to serious etc.

Participants

The distinctions here are along the same lines as Goffman’s ‘production format’ involving the ‘animator’, who produces talk, the ‘author’, who creates talk, and the ‘principal’, who is responsible for talk. The first distinction is between speaker (or sender ) and addressor . The former is responsible for the message while the latter is the person who physically delivers it. Normally these are the same, but not always. For example, when in the United States the presidential spokesperson delivers an unpalatable message, nobody points the finger of blame towards the deliverer: it is the President who must bear the brunt of any backlash. The second distinction, which parallels the first, is that between the hearer (or receiver , or audience ) and the addressee . The receiver of ‘Now do this in pairs’ in a coursebook may be the students but the main addressee is the teacher.

The distinction which Hymes draws here between outcomes and goals is perhaps less easy to pin down in practice. Outcomes refers to what is conventionally expected or publicly stated as the object of the event from the point of view of the community, whereas the reference to goals recognises that the parties involved may have purposes which are related but not identical to this. Hymes is careful to point out that, for both outcomes and goals, we must be careful to distinguish what is conventionally recognised from what is purely personal or situational.

Act sequence

This refers to the sequence of acts which makes up a speech event. Hymes draws a distinction between message form and message content offering an example of this distinction in terms of ‘He prayed saying “....”’ (where the words appearing between double quotation marks represent the form) and ‘He prayed that he would get well’ which reports the content only. Presumably the difference between the two could be much greater. For example, the message form, ‘Have you seen the time?’ would, in the right context, have a message content which would be represented as, ‘He said it was time they were going.’ This seems to be essentially the same as the locutionary form and illocutionary force distinction originally made by Austin and a key distinction in Speech Act Theory.

The term is used in its conventional sense, to refer to ‘the tone manner, or spirit in which an act is done’ (Hymes 1986:62).

Instrumentalities

These are, again, conventional. Channel is used in the conventional sense, so it would be important, for example, to distinguish face-to-face communication from talk on the telephone. Forms of speech Hymes identifies as language and dialect, codes, and varieties and registers. It is interesting to note that Saville-Troike includes non-verbal elements under message form, which is surely legitimate. But to represent these (e.g. 1989:166; 169; 173) in general terms as ‘kinesics’ or ‘proxemics’ or ‘eye gaze’ is less acceptable, even when specific examples are provided in the analysis itself. Research in the area of non-verbal communication has demonstrated conclusively that it is an important feature of all face-to-face communication, and detailed studies (e.g. Goodwin 1981 on gaze direction) have revealed that its role is a subtle and complex one. The dilemma for speech event analysis is that this aspect cannot be ignored but there is simply not the space to do it full justice. Selection of ‘relevant’ non-verbal features is therefore inevitably, to some extent, arbitrary.

The two components under this head are particularly important, and many cross-cultural comparisons tend to focus on these areas. Norms of interaction refer to the conventional rules relating to the conduct of the speech event. These will include rules about floor holding, turn-taking, delivery, topic etc. Norms of interpretation are also of crucial importance in speech events and in cross-cultural interaction generally. These refer to the rules which determine the interpretation of particular acts. A failure to understand relevant norms of interpretation was responsible for some very expensive mistakes when the US first engaged in large scale business negotiations in Japan.

The final element is genre, which is not necessarily an element at all. This is not Hymes’ stated position, and he explicitly argues (1986:65) that genres can be invoked within specific events, as when the ‘sermon’ is invoked for humorous purposes within another event. However, it seems to me that this is a special case, and that unless a genre is exploited in this way, it is more likely to be a super-ordinate descriptive category. This is, in fact, how Hymes himself uses it, as the genre (‘Scoring’) within which certain events (shaman’s retribution, girl’s puberty rite, testing of children) are located (1986:67-68).

The model in Perspective

‘The spirit of the model is heuristic, that is, it is designed as an aid to noticing, formulating and organizing materials, and it is designed so as to become itself an object of data- and experience-based critique.’

Philipsen, G. & Coutu, M. 2005. The ethnography of speaking. In K. L. Fitch & R. E. Sanders (eds.), Handbook of Language and Social Interaction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pages 355-379. (Page 365)

Basic elements

A number of other writers have developed similar models, all very similar. There’s no need to explore these in depth, but it’s worth noting that the common elements seem to be the first three in Hymes’ list (situation, participants and ends), so you could say these are the core elements, though as far as I know nobody has actually claimed that.

To see how these elements might work when it comes to interpreting an utterance, try working out the purpose (ends) of the following utterance, given the situation and the setting:

Do you know where today’s paper is?

1. Participants: colleague → colleague

Setting: Senior Common Room.

2. Participants: master → servant

Setting: breakfast table

3. Participants: husband → wife

Setting: living room

You should have found the first two very straightforward, but the last one is more problematic, as we saw in the first week:

Husband: Do you know where today’s paper is?

Wife: I’ll get it for you.

Husband: That’s OK Just tell me where it is. I’ll get it.

Wife: No, I’LL get it.

(Gumperz 1982: 135)

This is not an issue we need to explore, but it does serve as a reminder of the points I covered in the first week about the many dimensions of spoken language, which means that it often resists a priori categorisation. As we’ll see next week, this is a position that conversation analysis takes up.

Situation and Event

So far I’ve concentrated on the defining characteristics of the speech event, but the event itself is part of a hierarchy of descriptive terms used by those in the field. Hymes himself offers a fairly extensive list of ‘social units’, but I’ll like to concentrate on the three main elements. Two of these, situation and event, seem to me to be fairly unproblematic, but the speech ‘act’ does throw up a number of problems. For the purpose of discussion we’ll use a slightly adapted example from Saville-Troike (1989:28-29):

SITUATIONS: Party

Religious service

EVENTS: Call to worship

Reading of scriptures

Announcements

Benediction

ACTS: Summons

Supplication

Closing formula

In this example, the element in italics is carried on to the next level, where it is broken down, so that the situation religious service is represented by the list of events, and from these prayer is chosen as the element to be broken down into acts.

The distinction between (speech/communicative) situation and (speech) event is a straightforward one. The term situation here is used in its conventional sense to stand for the general social context in which communication occurs. A situation is not defined by speaking, although speaking may normally be expected to occur within it. So, for example, speaking would be expected to occur at a party (although it is just about possible to imagine a party where the loudness of the music makes speaking ‘at’ the party impossible), but there will also be other activities, such as dancing, where speaking may not feature. A speech event, however, is defined in terms of speaking, at least in the sense of being governed by the norms relating to this:

The term speech event will be restricted to activities, or aspects of activities, that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech.

Hymes 1986:56

So within the speech situation ‘religious service’, prayer may be a speech event. Obviously, there are forms of prayer which do not involve speech, but the focus here is on ‘spoken’ or ‘public’ prayer. For obvious reasons, Saville-Troike has chosen a clear cut example, and I’ve followed her, but this is not to say that speech events are always so easy to identify, and, as Gumperz notes (1982:164), they may not be easy to isolate. It may also be possible to find one event embedded within another (e.g. an announcement within a lecture) and they may be discontinuous (the lecture may be briefly interrupted as other business is transacted). They can also range from single utterances (‘Fire!’) to extended sequences (e.g. a lecture).

Gumperz’s observation (1982:164) that speech events can range from ritual situations to casual talk seems particularly relevant to TESOL, where coursebooks seem to be to be guilty all too often of ignoring this continuum. We often find them treating as ritual — and therefore subject to precise specification — what properly belongs to the more open end of the range.

Despite these minor reservations, the concept of the speech event is reasonably well-defined, and as an analytical unit it has proved its worth. However, the status of ‘speech act’ is much more problematic. In the end, I think we probably have to accept that the concept of an ‘act’ in EC is far from clear, but it does represent a unit of description below the level of the event. For this reason it seems safest, and perhaps most sensible, to think of acts as part of an ‘act sequence’, which is what Saville-Troike does in her book (e.g. 1989:163). In this way attention is drawn to the fact that they are essentially descriptive units. Having said this, I’d now like to point to what is problematic about the concept, starting with Hymes’ own acknowledgement of the difficulty of labelling acts:

The labelling of the acts is unavoidably somewhat arbitrary.

Hymes 1986:68

The most serious problem associated with the speech act is that its status is by no means clear. Saville-Troike (1996:371) says that it is ‘generally coterminous with a single interactional function, such as a referential statement, a request, or a command, and may be either verbal or nonverbal.’ The problem with this is that the idea of a single interactional function is pretty vague, and ‘generally’ coterminous allows plenty of space for alternatives. The situation isn’t helped by the fact that Hymes states that a joke can be a speech act within a conversation:

The term speech event will be restricted to activities, or aspects of activities, that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech. An event may consist of a single speech act, but will often comprise several. Just as an occurrence of a noun may at the same time be the whole of a noun phrase and the whole of a sentence (e.g. ‘Fire!’), so a speech act may be the whole of a speech event, and of a speech situation (say, a rite consisting of a single prayer, itself a single invocation). More often, however, one will find a difference in magnitude: a party (speech situation), a conversation during the party (speech event), a joke within the conversation (speech act). It is of speech events and speech acts that one writes formal rules for their occurrence and characteristics. Notice that the same type of speech act may recur in different types of speech event, and the same type of speech event in different contexts of situation. Thus, a joke (speech act) may be embedded in a private conversation, a lecture, a formal introduction. A private conversation may occur in the context of a party, a memorial service, a pause in changing sides in a tennis match.

Hymes 1977: 52

I have to admit that I’m not at all comfortable with the idea that a joke is a speech act because jokes can be very extended affairs. There’s also the disturbing possibility that a speech event (e.g. an announcement) might find itself embedded, albeit artificially, within a speech act (it’s easy to imagine it featuring as part of a joke, for example). This is why I feel that the much looser term ‘act sequence’ is useful, since it recognises — perfectly reasonably, it seems to me — that events can sometimes be broken up into a sequence of acts (‘phases’ or ‘stages’ might serve just as well to capture this idea). The precise status of such elements then does not need to be spelt out.

There is another problem with the use of the term ‘speech act’ which arises from its better known use within a related but distinct field. Speech Act Theory developed from the work of the philosopher, Austin, who recognised that certain utterances are used to do more than convey information. He demonstrated that they also perform particular acts. Subsequently, a great deal of work in pragmatics centred on the analysis of such ‘speech acts’, which are always specific utterances. Such work is related indirectly to the concerns of the ethnography of communication, but its treatment of isolated examples, often invented, marks it as coming from a different tradition. Duranti summarises the essential differences between the two fields:

What usually distinguishes the ethnographic approach from pragmatic analysis is a stronger concern for the socio-cultural context of the use of language, with the specific relationship between language and local systems of knowledge and social order, and a lesser commitment to the relevance of logical notation to the strategic use of speech in social interaction.

Duranti 1988:213

Where two traditions use exactly the same term for a central concept, the potential for confusion is considerable, and its not helped when the key figures in each tradition (Austin and Hymes) choose examples which could easily be interchanged. This seems to provide a very good reason for referring to an ‘act sequence’ or following Saville-Troike in using the term ‘communicative act’.

Acts and events

While there is potential for confusion in the use of the term ‘speech act’, it’s also true to say that the connection between event and act is an intimate one. The best way of illustrating this is to ask you to match the following ‘acts’ to the events in which they might occur:

‘Five past ten — is that the time!’

‘It is five minutes past ten, Mr James.’

‘It is 10.05.’

Announcement

The first thing to notice in these examples is that the form of the utterance is different in each case. It would be very odd, for example, to find someone in a conversation giving the time as 10.05. Perhaps more importantly in view of the issue of acts and their function, it seems clear that a knowledge of the relevant speech event enables us to identify quite clearly the ‘message content’ of these utterances (what Speech Act Theory would call their ‘illocutionary force’). In the first case we know that lectures begin and end at specified times, that the speaker and audience are expected to remain in situ throughout, and that the lecturer is expected, within reasonable limits, to keep to the subject of the lecture. So when Mr James arrives five minutes late and the lecturer reminds him of the time, we know that this is not part of the lecture as such but is an aside which serves as an admonition. In the case of the announcement, which is designed to present information, a bare statement of the precise time achieves the necessary communicative end.

The relationships in the examples are therefore as follows:

Lecture: “It is five minutes past ten, Mr James.”

Chat: “Five past ten — is that the time!”

Announcement: “It is 10.05.”

The ‘chat’ example is perhaps a little more subtle than the others because conversation is the least predictable (in terms of content at least) of all events. However, we know that conversations have to open and close, and if we reflect we will realise that sometimes speakers signal that a conversation has to come to an end (using ‘pre-closers’). In this case the speaker expresses surprise — even alarm — about the time, and from what we know of conversations we can safely assume that it announces that something needs to be done which will either interrupt or end the conversation.

There is, then, a relationship between the interpretation of specific acts within a speech event and the event itself as a representation of shared understandings of the relevant social context; and whatever the shortcomings of the notion of ‘act’ as Hymes represents it, these shouldn’t blind us to the fact that his etic grid offers is a subtle and insightful representation of the components which make up a speech event.

In fact, I think it’s well worth making an effort to get to grips with this concept and with the use of etic grids, but I’m less convinced by some of the more general claims of the ethnography of communication. If you’d like to pursue this (and this very much depends on where your particular interests lie), you’ll need to read Saville-Troike’s 1996 paper in the light of my suggestions in the next section.

Issues in the ethnography of communication

If you’re interested in exploring this field further, Saville-Troike (1996) makes a very good starting point. You might like to read this, noting the following:

• any apparent contradictions in the statements the author makes;
• definitions or descriptions which seem to you to be vague or very general in scope;
• proposals which seem to you to be optimistic;
• any other problems.

You might also consider how much of what she says here is relevant to TESOL as opposed to TESL or first language teaching.

If you’re interested in my own thoughts on the subject, these can be accessed at:

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/celte/staff/richards_k/se2lecturenotesrichards_k/issuesinec/

Duranti, A. 1988. Ethnography of speaking: towards a linguistics of praxis. In F. Newmeyer (ed), The Cambridge Linguistic Survey, Part IV, pp.210-28 . Cambridge: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gumperz, J. 1982. Discourse Strategies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gumperz, J. 1986. Introduction. In Gumperz & Hymes (eds), pp.1-25.

Gumperz, J. J. and Hymes, D. (eds). 1986. Directions in Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.

Hymes, D. 1977. Foundations in Sociolinguistics. London: Tavistock.

Hymes, D. 1986. Models of the interaction of language and social life. In Gumperz. and Hymes (eds), pp.35-71.

Keating, E. 2001. The ethnography of communication. In P. Atkinson, A, Coffey, S. Delamont, J. Lofland and L. Lofland (eds), Handbook of Ethnography , pp.285-301. London: Sage.

Saville-Troike, M. 1989 The Ethnography of Communication (Second Edition). Oxford: Blackwell.

Saville-Troike, M. 1996. The ethnography of communication. In S.L. McKay (ed), Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching, pp.351-80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

I suggest that you approach this in the following way:

1. Read Labov’s treatment of the subject, either in his book or in the extract reprinted in Joworski and Coupland.

2. Read my brief notes below to check that you have identified the essential elements.

3. Study my analysis of the ‘James Bond’ story.

4. Study the ‘Students as villains’ story and identify any interesting elements in it. Compare your findings with mine in my 1999 paper.

If you plan to write your assignment on this topic, you should explore the papers that appear in the Reading section below (Thornbury & Slade includes a useful chapter). You could also search the Journal of Pragmatics to see whether there have been any studies of narrative in your own language.

Some definitions

We define narrative as one method of recapitulating past experience by matching

a verbal sequence of clauses to the sequence of events which (it is inferred)

actually occurred. Labov 1999: 225

• A minimal narrative is a sequence of two narrative clauses that are temporally ordered.
• A narrative clause is confined by temporal juncture. This means that if the order is changed the inferred temporal sequence is changed.
• A free clause is not confined by any temporal juncture.

Here is an example from Labov 1977/1999. Identify the narrative clauses then check your answer against Labov’s analysis:

a. I know a boy named Harry.

b. Another boy threw a bottle at him right in the head

c. and he had to get seven stitches.

Labov 1999: 227

Story Structure

Labov describes the elements in narratives, then sums these up in terms of the questions to which they respond:  

Abstract What was this about?

Orientation Who, when, what, where?

Complicating Action Then what happened?

Evaluation So what?

Result What finally happened?

Note that the coda is a signal that the narrative has finished and therefore does not respond to a question. Labov says that if you ask the question, ‘And then what happened?’ after a coda, the only possible response is, ‘Nothing; I just told you what happened.’

Types of Story

Narrative As above

Anecdote Notable event and reaction

(resolution not expected)

Exemplum Told to make a moral point

(typically incident and interpretation)

Recount Essentially expository

(record of events)

(Thornbury and Slade 2006: 152-158)

Here is the story on the handout (but note that the alignment on this webpage version is less accurate than on the original):

All of the following are available from Warwick library:

Jefferson, G. 1978. Sequential aspects of storytelling in conversation. In J. Schenkein (ed.), Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction , pp.219-248. New York: Academic Press.

Johnstone, B. 2003. Discourse analysis and narrative. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen and H. E. Hamilton (eds), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis , pp.635-649. Oxford: Blackwell.

Labov, W. 1977. Language in the Inner City . Oxford: Blackwell. Reprinted in A. Jaworski and N. Coupland (eds), The Discourse Reader , London: Routledge, 1999. Pages 221-235.

Norrick, N. R. 2001. Discourse markers in oral narrative. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(6): 849- 878

Norrick, N. R. 2005. Interactional remembering in conversational narrative. Journal of Pragmatics, 37(11): 1819-1844.

Schiffrin, D. 1981. Tense variation in narrative. Language , 57 (1): 45-62.

Tannen, D. 1982. Oral and literate strategies in spoken and written narratives. Language , 58(1): 1-21.

Thornbury, S. and Slade, D. 2006. Conversation: From Description to Pedagogy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Toolan, M. J. 2001. Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction (2 nd Edition). London: Routledge.

Wolfson, N. 1979. The conversational historical present alternation. Language , 55(1): 168-182.

The following is available from the Applied Linguistics Resources Centre:

Richards, K. 1999. Working towards common understandings: Collaborative interaction in staffroom stories. Text , 19(1): 143-174.

Competition Events

Competition Events Guide

Speech  involves a presentation by one or two students that is judged against a similar type of presentation by others in a round of competition. There are two general categories of speech events, public address events and interpretive events.  Public address events  feature a speech written by the student, either in advance or with limited prep, that can answer a question, share a belief, persuade an audience, or educate the listener on a variety of topics.  Interpretation events center upon a student selecting and performing published material and appeal to many who enjoy acting and theatre. 

Debate involves an individual or a team of students working to effectively convince a judge that their side of a resolution or topic is, as a general principle, more valid. Students in debate come to thoroughly understand both sides of an issue, having researched each extensively, and learn to think critically about every argument that could be made on each side.

To learn more about each event, click on the event name.

Interp events.

• Dramatic Interpretation (DI)
• Duo Interpretation (DUO)
• Humorous Interpretation (HI)
• Poetry (POE)
• Program Oral Interpretation (POI)
• Prose (PRO)
• Storytelling (STO)

Public Address Events

• Commentary (EXC)
• Declamation (DEC)
• Expository (EXP)
• Impromptu (IMP)
• Informative Speaking (INF)
• International Extemporaneous Speaking (IX)
• Mixed Extemporaneous Speaking (MX)
• Original Oratory (OO)
• Original Spoken Word Poetry (SW)
• Pro Con Challenge (PCC)
• United States Extemporaneous Speaking (USX)

Debate Events

• Big Questions (BQ)
• Congressional Debate (House & Senate) (CON)
• Extemporaneous Debate (XDB)
• Lincoln-Douglas Debate (LD)
• Policy Debate (CX)
• Public Forum Debate (PF)
• World Schools Debate (WS)

Students are presented with prompts related to societal, political, historic or popular culture and, in 20 minutes, prepare a five-minute speech responding to the prompt. Students may consult articles and evidence they gather prior to the contest. At the National Tournament, students may use internet during preparation. Some other tournaments may not. The speech is delivered from memory and no notes are allowed.

About Declamation

About Dramatic Interpretation

About Duo Interpretation

About Expository

About Humorous Interpretation

About Impromptu

Impromptu is a public speaking event where students have seven minutes to select a topic, brainstorm their ideas, outline and deliver a speech. The speech is given without notes and uses an introduction, body, and conclusion. The speech can be light-hearted or serious. It can be based upon prompts that range from nursery rhymes, current events, celebrities, organizations, and more.

An adapted version of Impromptu, Prepared Prompt Speaking, has been used at online tournaments. In Prepared Prompt, students will be given a list of topics prior to the tournament, select one prompt from the official list, prepare a speech, and submit it through the recording process.

Impromptu is a public speaking event that tests a student’s ability to analyze a prompt, process their thoughts, organize the points of the speech, and deliver them in a clear, coherent manner. Students’ logic is extremely important. They must be able to take an abstract idea, such as a fortune from a fortune cookie, and put together a speech that has a thesis and supporting information.

About Informative Speaking

Informative is a speech written by the student with the intent to inform the audience on a topic of significance. Students in informative may use a visual aid. Informative gives students the unique opportunity to showcase their personality while educating the audience. An Informative is not simply an essay about the topic—it is a well researched and organized presentation with evidence, logic, and sometimes humor to convey a message. Topics are varied and interesting. Whether it be a new technological advance the audience is unaware of or a new take on a concept that everyone is familiar with, Informative is the students opportunity to teach the audience. Types of topics and structure vary greatly.

About International Extemp

International Extemporaneous Speaking, typically called International Extemp, is a speech on current International events with limited preparation time. A student’s understanding of important political, economic, and cultural issues is assessed along with critical thinking and analytical skills. Students report to a draw room (often referred to as Extemp prep) where all of the Extempers gather at tables, set out their files, and await their turn to draw topics. Students may access research brought with them to the tournament during the 30-minute preparation period. Some tournaments, including the NSDA National Tournament, will permit students to use the internet to research during preparation time. When prep time is up, the student reports to the competition room to deliver a 7 minute speech. Students have a lot to do in 30 minutes—they must select a question, review research, outline arguments with supporting materials, and practice at least part of the speech before time expires. Many tournaments prohibit the consultation of notes during the speech in which case speech structure and evidence need to be memorized during prep time as well.

Mixed Extemp

Mixed Extemp combines international and domestic issues (as opposed to two separate events like high school). Mixed Extemp is an event at the NSDA Middle School National Tournament. Students are presented with a choice of three questions related to national and international current events. The student has 30 minutes to prepare a seven-minute speech answering the selected question. Students may consult articles and evidence to help with their preparation. The internet may be used during preparation time at the NSDA Middle School National Tournament, though local events may not allow use of internet.

About Original Oratory

About Original Spoken Word Poetry

Students write and perform original poetry to express ideas, experience, or emotion through the creative arrangement of words according to their sound, their rhythm, their meaning.

The maximum time limit is 5 minutes with a 30-second grace period. The delivery must be memorized, and no book or script may be used. No more than 150 words of the original poetry may be direct quotation from any other speech or writing. A successful performer will craft a piece that elicits critical thought, reflection, or emotion. As opposed to traditional Poetry, Spoken Word Poetry is created to be performed aloud and may feature rhythmic flow, vivid imagery, word play, gestures, lyrical elements, and repetition. Use the Getting Started with Original Spoken Word Poetry guide as a helpful tool to explore ways to express thoughts and experiences through poetry.

About Poetry

Poetry is characterized by writing that conveys ideas, experiences, and emotions through language and expression. Often Poetry is very creative in terms of vocabulary and composition. While Poetry may tell a story or develop a character, more often Poetry’s focus on language and form are designed to elicit critical thought, reflection, or emotion. Students may choose what the National Speech & Debate Association refers to as traditional Poetry, which often has a formal meter or rhyme scheme, or nontraditional Poetry, which often has a rhythmic flow but lacks formal rhyme or meter. Poetry is different than Original Spoken Word Poetry in that students in Poetry will perform works written by others. In Poetry, students may chose to perform one long poem or create a program of poetry from one source or multiple sources.

Pro Con Challenge

Students select the National Tournament topic for CX, LD, or PF or a piece of legislation in the Congressional Debate Docket and write a 3-5 minute affirmative speech and a 3-5 minute negative speech on that topic. This event allows students to explore debate topics in a new and exciting way while showing off their writing, research, and delivery skills.

About Progam Oral Interpretation

About Prose

About Storytelling

Storytelling consists of sharing a story with an audience, performed as if the audience were a group of young children. Some tournaments have themes that the story selection must fit in; the National Tournament does not have a theme, and any story selection is acceptable. The story must not exceed five minutes. Students may use a full range of movement to express themselves and may incorporate a chair in a variety of different ways, though the chair may not be used as a prop during the performance. Students may be seated but most commonly performers use a full range of stage space available to them. As there are so many different types of stories that can be performed, it is important to observe rounds to see what other students and teams are using. The Association has final rounds of Storytelling from both the high school and middle school level to review. Local and regional tournaments may vary in the selection of stories performed.

About United States Extemp

About Big Questions Debate

Time limits.

*Each team is entitled to three minutes of prep time during the round.

About Congressional Debate

About Extemporaneous Debate

About Lincoln-Douglas Debate

Lincoln-Douglas Debate typically appeals to individuals who like to debate, but prefer a one-on-one format as opposed to a team or group setting. Additionally, individuals who enjoy LD like exploring questions of how society ought to be. Many people refer to LD Debate as a “values” debate, as questions of morality and justice are commonly examined. Students prepare cases and then engage in an exchange of cross-examinations and rebuttals in an attempt to convince a judge that they are the better debater in the round.

About Policy Debate

About Public Forum Debate

About World Schools Debate

Speech Events and Natural Speech

Cite this chapter.

• Nessa Wolfson  

Part of the book series: Modern Linguistics Series ((MAML))

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For interviews which follow a questionnaire format, the problems involved in collecting anything approaching everyday speech are extremely severe. This is because the interview is, in fact, a speech event, in the technical sense proposed by Hymes (1974: 52):

The term speech event will be restricted to activities, or aspects of activities that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech. An event may consist of a single speech act, but will often comprise several.

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Indirect Reported Speech in Interaction

Brown, R. and Gilman, A. (1960) ‘The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity’, in Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) Style and Language ( Cambridge, MA: The Technology Press ) pp. 253–76.

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Wolfson, N. (1997). Speech Events and Natural Speech. In: Coupland, N., Jaworski, A. (eds) Sociolinguistics. Modern Linguistics Series. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_11

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How to Write a Definition Speech

Organizational Methods for Writing a Speech

A writer chooses what speech to write based on how they want to reach their audience. While some speeches are meant to entertain, others are meant to persuade or inform. A definition speech is written to inform the audience by describing and explaining an object or concept. You might be called upon to deliver such a speech at your place of employment, for example, in order to describe a new business strategy. Or, you may be required to define a new initiative to help a worthy cause in your community. But, before you get to that point, you may first have to write a definition speech as part of a school assignment. Writing a definition speech isn't too difficult if you just follow some basic guidelines.

Create Your Purpose Statement

The first step in writing a definition speech is to write a purpose statement that indicates the direction the speech will take and focuses on its main goal. For example, if you intend to describe the school of philosophical thought known as "transcendentalism," the purpose of your speech might be stated as "to define the meaning of the term transcendentalism and describe its major tenets."

Emphasize the Central Idea

Next, you must state the central idea, which is akin to the thesis statement in an essay and consists of a complete sentence that expresses the main idea or ideas you intend to make. For example, you might say, "Transcendentalism is a philosophy that proposes that man can discover the nature of reality through thought and spiritual intuition, and its tenets were embraced by such 19th century writers as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson."

Put Together the Introduction

Once you've written your purpose statement and determined the central idea of the speech, it's time to write the introduction, never forgetting the importance of first impressions. What you initially say either can immediately grab the audience's attention, or make everyone sigh in boredom. According to Stephen E. Lucus, author of "The Art of Public Speaking," you should get the audience's attention by revealing the topic of your speech, establishing your credibility and goodwill, and previewing the main points you intend to make.

Construct the Body of the Speech

After the introduction is complete, you can then start writing the body of the speech. Since you will have only a certain amount of time in which to deliver the speech, you cannot relate all the facts about a chosen topic. Decide which information is most important and how it will be presented. Begin with a general definition of the object or concept, then explain the major ideas or elements. Provide several illustrations or examples. End the speech by summarizing the main points and/or providing the listeners with sources for additional information. Before writing the body, remember that if you are going to use terms, words, or acronyms that are unfamiliar to the audience, provide the definitions.

Wrap It Up With a Strong Conclusion

To finish off your definition speech, you'll need to write a strong conclusion. Do not end with an abrupt statement such as "this concludes my speech" or "well, that's all I have to say on the topic." Instead, summarize the main ideas that you presented, reinforce the audience's understanding of those ideas and refer back to the central idea that was presented in the introduction. Depending upon the topic of the speech, you might also end with a personal anecdote, appropriate joke or a dramatic statement to leave everyone with something to think about.

Things to Keep in Mind

If you are a student and free to choose your own topic, remember that since a definition speech describes or explains an object or concept, you must select a topic that fits this category. However, as long as the object or concept is open to a description and/or explanation, it is usually appropriate for a definition speech.

When giving the speech, you may also decide to incorporate visual aids to help make your message clearer. Visual aides reinforce concepts, generate interest and capture the audience's attention. The visual aids you use will depend on your topic. For instance, if you are defining a neurotransmitter, present photos or other images on a PowerPoint slideshow. List the main points using bullets or numbers to call the audience's attention to each point as you progress through the speech. Before using visual aids, be sure to ask your professor whether or not they are permitted.

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Effective Persuasive Speech Writing & Delivering in High School

• The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Speeches
• Academic Help: Writing a Definition Essay
• If you are a student and free to choose your own topic, remember that since a definition speech describes or explains an object or concept, you must select a topic that fits this category. However, as long as the object or concept is open to description and/or explanation, it is usually appropriate for a definition speech.
• If you are going to use terms, words, or acronyms that are unfamiliar to the audience, provide the definitions.
• Use visual aids to help make a speaker's message clearer. Visual aides reinforce concepts, generate interest and capture the audience's attention. The visual aids you use will depends on your topic. For instance, if you are defining a neurotransmitter, present photos or other images on a PowerPoint slideshow. List the main points using bullets or numbers to call the audience's attention to each point as you progress through the speech.

A college instructor for more than 14 years, Carol Rzadkiewicz earned a Master of Arts from the University of West Georgia. She is also a freelance writer and author of three published novels, and her work has appeared in such print publications as “Predicate Magazine” and “The New Review."

Speech Acts in Linguistics

Brooks Kraft LLC/Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In linguistics , a speech act is an utterance defined in terms of a speaker's intention and the effect it has on a listener. Essentially, it is the action that the speaker hopes to provoke in his or her audience. Speech acts might be requests, warnings, promises, apologies, greetings, or any number of declarations. As you might imagine, speech acts are an important part of communication.

Speech-Act Theory

Speech-act theory is a subfield of pragmatics . This area of study is concerned with the ways in which words  can be used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. It is used in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, legal and literary theories, and even the development of artificial intelligence.

Speech-act theory was introduced in 1975 by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in "How to Do Things With Words"   and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. It considers three levels or components of utterances: locutionary acts (the making of a meaningful statement, saying something that a hearer understands), illocutionary acts (saying something with a purpose, such as to inform), and perlocutionary acts (saying something that causes someone to act). Illocutionary speech acts can also be broken down into different families, grouped together by their intent of usage.

Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts

To determine which way a speech act is to be interpreted, one must first determine the type of act being performed.  Locutionary acts  are, according to Susana Nuccetelli and Gary Seay's "Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics," "the mere act of producing some linguistic sounds or marks with a certain meaning and reference." So this is merely an umbrella term, as illocutionary and perlocutionary acts can occur simultaneously when locution of a statement happens.

Illocutionary acts , then, carry a directive for the audience. It might be a promise, an order, an apology, or an expression of thanks—or merely an answer to a question, to inform the other person in the conversation. These express a certain attitude and carry with their statements a certain illocutionary force, which can be broken into families. 

Perlocutionary acts , on the other hand, bring about a consequence to the audience. They have an effect on the hearer, in feelings, thoughts, or actions, for example, changing someone's mind. Unlike illocutionary acts, perlocutionary acts can project a sense of fear into the audience.

Take for instance the perlocutionary act of saying, "I will not be your friend." Here, the impending loss of friendship is an illocutionary act, while the effect of frightening the friend into compliance is a perlocutionary act.

Families of Speech Acts

As mentioned, illocutionary acts can be categorized into common families of speech acts. These define the supposed intent of the speaker. Austin again uses "How to Do Things With Words" to argue his case for the five most common classes: 

• Verdictives, which present a finding
• Exercitives, which exemplify power or influence
• Commissives, which consist of promising or committing to doing something
• Behabitives, which have to do with social behaviors and attitudes like apologizing and congratulating
• Expositives, which explain how our language interacts with itself

David Crystal, too, argues for these categories in "Dictionary of Linguistics." He lists several proposed categories, including " directives (speakers try to get their listeners to do something, e.g. begging, commanding, requesting), commissives (speakers commit themselves to a future course of action, e.g. promising, guaranteeing), expressives (speakers express their feelings, e.g. apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing), declarations (the speaker's utterance brings about a new external situation, e.g. christening, marrying, resigning)."

It is important to note that these are not the only categories of speech acts, and they are not perfect nor exclusive. Kirsten Malmkjaer points out in "Speech-Act Theory," "There are many marginal cases, and many instances of overlap, and a very large body of research exists as a result of people's efforts to arrive at more precise classifications."

Still, these five commonly accepted categories do a good job of describing the breadth of human expression, at least when it comes to illocutionary acts in speech theory.

Austin, J.L. "How to Do Things With Words." 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975.

Crystal, D. "Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics." 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2008.

Malmkjaer, K. "Speech -Act Theory." In "The Linguistics Encyclopedia," 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2010.

Nuccetelli, Susana (Editor). "Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics." Gary Seay (Series Editor), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, December 24, 2007.

• Performative Verbs
• The Definition and Examples of Folk Linguistics
• What Is The Speech Act Theory: Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Linguists
• The Term Langue in Linguistics and Semiotics
• What Is Psycholinguistics?
• Communicative Competence Definition, Examples, and Glossary
• Pragmatic Competence
• Definition and Examples of Linguistic Accommodation
• Interlanguage Definition and Examples
• The 9 Parts of Speech: Definitions and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Corpora in Linguistics
• Context in Language
• What Is Phonetics?
• Locutionary Act Definition in Speech-Act Theory
• Linguistic Performance

Module 2: Informative Speaking

Types of informative speeches.

In the last section we examined how informative speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable, and how they need to make the topic relevant to their audience. This section discusses the four primary types of informative speeches. These include definitional speeches, descriptive speeches, explanatory speeches, and demonstration speeches.

Definitional Speeches

In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience. In these types of speeches, speakers may begin by giving the historical derivation, classification, or synonyms of terms or the background of the subject. In a speech on “How to identify a sociopath,” the speaker may answer these questions: Where did the word ‘sociopath’ come from? What is a sociopath? How many sociopaths are there in the population? What are the symptoms? Carefully define your terminology to give shape to things the audience cannot directly sense. Describing the essential attributes of one concept compared to another (as through use of analogies) can increase understanding as well. For a speech on “Elderly Abuse,” the speaker may compare this type of abuse to child or spousal abuse for contrast.

Regardless of the listeners’ level of knowledge about the subject, it is very important in these types of speeches to show the relevance of the topic to their lives. Often the topics discussed in definitional speeches are abstract—distanced from reality. So provide explicit, real-life examples and applications of the subject matter. If you were going to give a speech about civil rights, you would need to go beyond commonly held meanings and show the topic in a new light. In this type of speech, the speaker points out the unique and distinguishing properties or boundaries of a concept in a particular context (Rinehart, 2002). The meaning of “civil rights” has changed significantly over time. What does it mean today compared to the 1960s? How will knowing this distinction help audience members? What are some specific incidents involving civil rights issues in current news? What changes in civil rights legislation might listeners see in their lifetimes?

Sample Definitional Speech Outline

Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (Thompson, 1999)

Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will understand the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism

Central Idea: Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches a number of useful lessons you can apply to your own life.

• All life involves dukkha (suffering)
• Suffering is caused by tanha (longing for things to be other than they are)
• If this longing stops ( nirodha ), suffering will cease
• The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path
• Right intention
• Right speech
• Right action
• Right livelihood
• Right effort
• Right mindfulness
• Right contemplation

Descriptive Speeches

To gaze in wonder at that magnificent dome and elegant gardens will be a moment that you remember for the rest of your life. The Taj Mahal just takes your breath away. What is immediately striking is its graceful symmetry—geometric lines run through formal gardens ending in a white marble platform. Atop this platform is great white bulbous dome complemented by four towering minarets in each corner. The whole image shimmers in a reflecting pool flanked by beautiful gardens—the effect is magical. The first stretch by the reflecting pool is where most people pose for their photos. But we were impressed by the fresh, green gardens. As you approach through the gardens two mosques come into view flanking the Taj—both exquisitely carved and built of red sandstone.

In the descriptive speech, determine the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of the topic. What makes the person unique? How did the person make you feel? What adjectives apply to the subject? What kind of material is the object made from? What shape is it? What color is it? What does it smell like? Is it part of a larger system? Can it be seen by the naked eye? What is its geography or location in space? How has it changed or evolved over time? How does it compare to a similar object? When preparing for the speech, try to think of ways to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. As an example, in a speech about different types of curried dishes, you could probably verbally describe the difference between yellow, red, and green curry, but the speech will have more impact if the audience can see, smell, and taste samples.

Sample Descriptive Speech Outline

Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be able to visualize some of the main attractions on Easter Island.

Central Idea: Easter Island hosts a number of ancient, mysterious, and beautiful attractions that make it an ideal vacation destination.

• Average 13 feet high; 14 tons
• Play sacred role for Rapa Nui (native inhabitants)
• Central Ahu ceremonial sites
• Snorkeling & Scuba
• Giant crater
• Sheer cliffs to ocean

Be able to describe anything visual, such as a street scene, in words that convey your meaning. ~ Marilyn vos Savant

Explanatory Speeches

An explanatory speech (also known as a briefing) is similar to the descriptive speech in that they both share the function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory speeches focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. Whereas descriptive speeches attempt to paint a picture with words so that audiences can vicariously experience it, explanatory speeches focus on the how or why of a subject and its consequences. Thus, a speaker might give a descriptive speech on the daily life of Marie Antoinette, or an explanatory speech on how she came to her death. Recall that definitional speeches focus on delineating concepts or issues. In this case, a speaker might give a definitional speech about the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, or an explanatory speech on why the financial bailout was necessary for U.S. financial stability.

If a manager wanted to inform employees about a new workplace internet use policy, s/he might cover questions like: Why was a policy implemented? How will it help? What happens if people do not follow established policies? Explanatory speeches are less concerned with appealing to the senses than connecting the topic to a series of related other subjects to enhance a deep understanding (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2000). For example, to explain the custom of the Thai wai greeting (hands pressed together as in prayer), you also need to explain how it originated to show one had no weapons, and the ways it is tied to religion, gender, age, and status.

Sample Explanatory Speech Outline

Title: Giant Waves, Death, and Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (National Geographic, 2006)

Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be aware of the nature of the 2004 Tsunami and the destruction it caused.

Central Idea: The 2004 Asian Tsunami was one of the worst natural disasters in human history in terms of magnitude, loss of human life, and enduring impact.

• Earthquake epicenter and magnitude
• Tsunami forms (waves reach up to 100 feet)
• Tsunami strikes land of various countries with no warning
• The countries and people involved
• Loss of food, water, hospitals, housing, electricity, and plumbing
• Threat of disease
• Environmental destruction
• Economic devastation
• Psychological trauma

I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. – Confucious

Demonstration Speeches

The most practical of all informative speeches, a demonstration speech shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to perform it themselves. The focus is on a chronological explanation of some process (how potato chips are made), procedure (how to fight fires on a submarine), application (how to use the calendar function in Outlook), or course of action (how court cases proceed to Supreme Court status). Speakers might focus on processes that have a series of steps with a specific beginning and end (how to sell a home by yourself) or the process may be continuous (how to maintain the hard drive on your computer to prevent crashes). Demonstration speeches can be challenging to write due to the fact that the process may involve several objects, a set of tools, materials, or a number of related relationships or events (Rinehart, 2002). Nevertheless, these types of speeches provide the greatest opportunity for audience members to get involved or apply the information later.

When preparing this speech, remember first to keep the safety of the audience in mind. One speaker severely burned his professor when he accidently spilled hot oil from a wok on her. Another student nearly took the heads off listeners when he was demonstrating how to swing a baseball bat. Keep in mind also that you may need to bring in examples or pictures of completed steps in order to make efficient use of your time. Just think of the way that cooking demonstrations are done on TV—the ingredients are premeasured, the food is premixed, and the mixture magically goes from uncooked to cooked in a matter of seconds. Finally, if you are having your audience participate during your presentation (making an origami sculpture), know what their knowledge level is so that you don’t make them feel unintelligent if they are not successful. Practice your speech with friends who know nothing about the topic to gauge if listeners can do what you are asking them to do in the time allotted.

Sample Demonstration Speech Outline

Title: How to Survive if You Get Stranded in the Wilderness (U.S. Department of Defense, 2006).

Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will understand what to do if they unexpectedly become stranded in the wilderness.

Central Idea: You can greatly improve your ability to stay alive and safe in the wilderness by learning a few simple survival techniques.

• Size up the surroundings
• Size up your physical and mental states
• Size up your equipment (handout “What to Include in a Survival Kit”)
• Obtaining water
• Acquiring food
• Building a fire
• Locating shelter
• Call or signal rescue personnel
• Wilderness navigation
• Leaving “bread crumb” trail
• Chapter 15 Types of Informative Speeches. Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D.. Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Taj Mahal, Agra, India. Authored by : Yann. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal,_Agra,_India.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Maoi at Rano Raraku. Authored by : Aurbina. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

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18.2 Special-Occasion Speeches

Learning objectives.

• Identify the different types of ceremonial speaking.
• Describe the different types of inspirational speaking.

M+MD – Birthday Speech – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Many entertaining speeches fall under the category of special-occasion speeches. All the speeches in this category are given to mark the significance of particular events. Common events include weddings, bar mitzvahs, awards ceremonies, funerals, and political events. In each of these different occasions, speakers are asked to deliver speeches relating to the event. For purposes of simplicity, we’ve broken special-occasion speeches into two groups: ceremonial speaking and inspirational speaking.

Ceremonial Speaking

Ceremonial speeches are speeches given during a ceremony or a ritual marked by observance of formality or etiquette. These ceremonies tend to be very special for people, so it shouldn’t be surprising that they are opportunities for speech making. Let’s examine each of the eight types of ceremonial speaking: introductions, presentations, acceptances, dedications, toasts, roasts, eulogies, and farewells.

Speeches of Introduction

The first type of speech is called the speech of introduction , which is a minispeech given by the host of a ceremony that introduces another speaker and his or her speech. Few things are worse than when the introducer or a speaker stands up and says, “This is Joe Smith, he’s going to talk about stress.” While we did learn the speaker’s name and the topic, the introduction falls flat. Audiences won’t be the least bit excited about listening to Joe’s speech.

Just like any other speech, a speech of introduction should be a complete speech and have a clear introduction, body, and conclusion—and you should do it all in under two minutes. This brings up another “few things are worse” scenario: an introductory speaker who rambles on for too long or who talks about himself or herself instead of focusing on the person being introduced.

For an introduction, think of a hook that will make your audience interested in the upcoming speaker. Did you read a news article related to the speaker’s topic? Have you been impressed by a presentation you’ve heard the speaker give in the past? You need to find something that can grab the audience’s attention and make them excited about hearing the main speaker.

The body of your introductory speech should be devoted to telling the audience about the speaker’s topic, why the speaker is qualified, and why the audience should listen (notice we now have our three body points). First, tell your audience in general terms about the overarching topic of the speech. Most of the time as an introducer, you’ll only have a speech title and maybe a paragraph of information to help guide this part of your speech. That’s all right. You don’t need to know all the ins and outs of the main speaker’s speech; you just need to know enough to whet the audience’s appetite. Next, you need to tell the audience why the speaker is a credible speaker on the topic. Has the speaker written books or articles on the subject? Has the speaker had special life events that make him or her qualified? Lastly, you need to briefly explain to the audience why they should care about the upcoming speech.

The final part of a good introduction is the conclusion, which is generally designed to welcome the speaker to the lectern. Many introducers will conclude by saying something like, “I am looking forward to hearing how Joe Smith’s advice and wisdom can help all of us today, so please join me in welcoming Mr. Joe Smith.” We’ve known some presenters who will even add a notation to their notes to “start clapping” and “shake speakers hand” or “give speaker a hug” depending on the circumstances of the speech.

Now that we’ve walked through the basic parts of an introductory speech, let’s see one outlined:

Specific Purpose: To entertain the audience while preparing them for Janice Wright’s speech on rituals.

Introduction: Mention some common rituals people in the United States engage in (Christmas, sporting events, legal proceedings).

Main Points:

• Explain that the topic was selected because understanding how cultures use ritual is an important part of understanding what it means to be human.
• Janice Wright is a cultural anthropologist who studies the impact that everyday rituals have on communities.
• All of us engage in rituals, and we often don’t take the time to determine how these rituals were started and how they impact our daily routines.

Conclusion: I had the opportunity to listen to Dr. Wright at the regional conference in Springfield last month, and I am excited that I get to share her with all of you tonight. Please join me in welcoming Dr. Wright (start clapping, shake speaker’s hand, exit stage).

Speeches of Presentation

The second type of common ceremonial speech is the speech of presentation . A speech of presentation is a brief speech given to accompany a prize or honor. Speeches of presentation can be as simple as saying, “This year’s recipient of the Schuman Public Speaking prize is Wilhelmina Jeffers,” or could last up to five minutes as the speaker explains why the honoree was chosen for the award.

When preparing a speech of presentation, it’s always important to ask how long the speech should be. Once you know the time limit, then you can set out to create the speech itself. First, you should explain what the award or honor is and why the presentation is important. Second, you can explain what the recipient has accomplished in order for the award to be bestowed. Did the person win a race? Did the person write an important piece of literature? Did the person mediate conflict? Whatever the recipient has done, you need to clearly highlight his or her work. Lastly, if the race or competition was conducted in a public forum and numerous people didn’t win, you may want to recognize those people for their efforts as well. While you don’t want to steal the show away from winner (as Kanye West did to Taylor Swift during the 2009 MTV Music Video Awards, for example http://www.mtv.com/videos/misc/435995/taylor-swift-wins-best-female-video.jhtml#id=1620605 ), you may want to highlight the work of the other competitors or nominees.

Speeches of Acceptance

The complement to a speech of presentation is the speech of acceptance . The speech of acceptance is a speech given by the recipient of a prize or honor. For example, in the above video clip from the 2009 MTV Music Video Awards, Taylor Swift starts by expressing her appreciation, gets interrupted by Kanye West, and ends by saying, “I would like to thank the fans and MTV, thank you.” While obviously not a traditional acceptance speech because of the interruption, she did manage to get in the important parts.

There are three typical components of a speech of acceptance: thank the givers of the award or honor, thank those who helped you achieve your goal, and put the award or honor into perspective. First, you want to thank the people who have given you the award or honor and possibly those who voted for you. We see this done every year during the Oscars, “First, I’d like to thank the academy and all the academy voters.” Second, you want to give credit to those who helped you achieve the award or honor. No person accomplishes things in life on his or her own. We all have families and friends and colleagues who support us and help us achieve what we do in life, and a speech of acceptance is a great time to graciously recognize those individuals. Lastly, put the award in perspective. Tell the people listening to your speech why the award is meaningful to you.

Speeches of Dedication

The fourth ceremonial speech is the speech of dedication . A speech of dedication is delivered when a new store opens, a building is named after someone, a plaque is placed on a wall, a new library is completed, and so on. These speeches are designed to highlight the importance of the project and possibly those to whom the project has been dedicated. Maybe your great-uncle has died and left your college tons of money, so the college has decided to rename one of the dorms after your great-uncle. In this case, you may be asked to speak at the dedication.

When preparing the speech of dedication, start by explaining how you are involved in the dedication. If the person to whom the dedication is being made is a relative, tell the audience that the building is being named after your great-uncle who bestowed a gift to his alma mater. Second, you want to explain what is being dedicated. If the dedication is a new building or a preexisting building, you want to explain what is being dedicated and the importance of the structure. You should then explain who was involved in the project. If the project is a new structure, talk about the people who built the structure or designed it. If the project is a preexisting structure, talk about the people who put together and decided on the dedication. Lastly, explain why the structure is important for the community where it’s located. If the dedication is for a new store, talk about how the store will bring in new jobs and new shopping opportunities. If the dedication is for a new wing of a hospital, talk about how patients will be served and the advances in medicine the new wing will provide the community.

At one time or another, almost everyone is going to be asked to deliver a toast . A toast is a speech designed to congratulate, appreciate, or remember. First, toasts can be delivered for the purpose of congratulating someone for an honor, a new job, or getting married. You can also toast someone to show your appreciation for something they’ve done. Lastly, we toast people to remember them and what they have accomplished.

When preparing a toast, the first goal is always to keep your remarks brief. Toasts are generally given during the middle of some kind of festivities (e.g., wedding, retirement party, farewell party), and you don’t want your toast to take away from those festivities for too long. Second, the goal of a toast is to focus attention on the person or persons being toasted—not on the speaker. As such, while you are speaking you need to focus your attention to the people being toasted, both by physically looking at them and by keeping your message about them. You should also avoid any inside jokes between you and the people being toasted because toasts are public and should be accessible for everyone who hears them. To conclude a toast, simply say something like, “Please join me in recognizing Joan for her achievement” and lift your glass. When you lift your glass, this will signal to others to do the same and then you can all take a drink, which is the end of your speech.

The roast speech is a very interesting and peculiar speech because it is designed to both praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored. Generally, roasts are given at the conclusion of a banquet in honor of someone’s life achievements. The television station Comedy Central has been conducting roasts of various celebrities for a few years.

In this clip, watch as Stephen Colbert, television host of The Colbert Report , roasts President George W. Bush.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSE_saVX_2A

Let’s pick this short clip apart. You’ll notice that the humor doesn’t pull any punches. The goal of the roast is to both praise and insult in a good-natured manner. You’ll also see that the roaster, in this case Stephen Colbert, is standing behind a lectern while the roastee, President George W. Bush, is clearly on display for the audience to see, and periodically you’ll see the camera pan to President Bush to take in his reactions. Half the fun of a good roast is watching the roastee’s reactions during the roast, so it’s important to have the roastee clearly visible by the audience.

How does one prepare for a roast? First, you want to really think about the person who is being roasted. Do they have any strange habits or amusing stories in their past that you can discuss? When you think through these things you want to make sure that you cross anything off your list that is truly private information or will really hurt the person. The goal of a roast is to poke at them, not massacre them. Second, when selecting which aspects to poke fun at, you need to make sure that the items you choose are widely known by your audience. Roasts work when the majority of people in the audience can relate to the jokes being made. If you have an inside joke with the roastee, bringing it up during roast may be great fun for the two of you, but it will leave your audience unimpressed. Lastly, end on a positive note. While the jokes are definitely the fun part of a roast, you should leave the roastee knowing that you truly do care about and appreciate the person.

A eulogy is a speech given in honor of someone who has died. (Don’t confuse “eulogy” with “elegy,” a poem or song of mourning.) Unless you are a minister, priest, rabbi, imam, or other form of religious leader, you’ll probably not deliver too many eulogies in your lifetime. However, when the time comes to deliver a eulogy, it’s good to know what you’re doing and to adequately prepare your remarks. Watch the following clip of then-Senator Barack Obama delivering a eulogy at the funeral of civil rights activist Rosa Parks in November of 2005.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRsH92sJCr4

In this eulogy, Senator Obama delivers the eulogy by recalling Rosa Parks importance and her legacy in American history.

When preparing a eulogy, first you need to know as much information about the deceased as possible. The more information you have about the person, the more personal you can make the eulogy. While you can rely on your own information if you were close to the deceased, it is always a good idea to ask friends and relatives of the deceased for their memories, as these may add important facets that may not have occurred to you. Of course, if you were not very close to the deceased, you will need to ask friends and family for information. Second, although eulogies are delivered on the serious and sad occasion of a funeral or memorial service for the deceased, it is very helpful to look for at least one point to be lighter or humorous. In some cultures, in fact, the friends and family attending the funeral will expect the eulogy to be highly entertaining and amusing. While eulogies are not roasts, one goal of the humor or lighter aspects of a eulogy is to relieve the tension that is created by the serious nature of the occasion. Lastly, remember to tell the deceased’s story. Tell the audience about who this person was and what the person stood for in life. The more personal you can make a eulogy, the more touching it will be for the deceased’s friends and families. The eulogy should remind the audience to celebrate the person’s life as well as mourn their death.

Speeches of Farewell

A speech of farewell allows someone to say good-bye to one part of his or her life as he or she is moving on to the next part of life. Maybe you’ve accepted a new job and are leaving your current job, or you’re graduating from college and entering the work force. Whatever the case may be, periods of transition are often marked by speeches of farewell. Watch the following clip of Derek Jeter’s 2008 speech saying farewell to Yankee Stadium, built in 1923, before the New York Yankees moved to the new stadium that opened in 2009.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJrlTpQm0to

In this speech, Derek Jeter is not only saying good-bye to Yankee Stadium but also thanking the fans for their continued support.

When preparing a speech of farewell, the goal should be to thank the people in your current position and let them know how much you appreciate them as you make the move to your next position in life. In Derek Jeter’s speech, he starts by talking about the history of the 1923 Yankee Stadium and then thanks the fans for their support. Second, you want to express to your audience how much the experience has meant to you. A farewell speech is a time to commemorate and think about the good times you’ve had. As such, you should avoid negativity during this speech. Lastly, you want to make sure that you end on a high note. Derek Jeter concludes his speech by saying, “On behalf of this entire organization, we just want to take this moment to salute you, the greatest fans in the world!” at which point Jeter and the other players take off their ball caps and hold them up toward the audience.

Inspirational Speaking

The goal of an inspirational speech is to elicit or arouse an emotional state within an audience. In Section 18.2.1 “Ceremonial Speaking” , we looked at ceremonial speeches. Although some inspirational speeches are sometimes tied to ceremonial occasions, there are also other speaking contexts that call for inspirational speeches. For our purposes, we are going to look at two types of inspirational speeches: goodwill and speeches of commencement.

Speeches to Ensure Goodwill

Goodwill is an intangible asset that is made up of the favor or reputation of an individual or organization. Speeches of goodwill are often given in an attempt to get audience members to view the person or organization more favorably. Although speeches of goodwill are clearly persuasive, they try not to be obvious about the persuasive intent and are often delivered as information-giving speeches that focus on an individual or organization’s positives attributes. There are three basic types of speeches of goodwill: public relations, justification, and apology.

Speeches for Public Relations

In a public relations speech, the speaker is speaking to enhance one’s own image or the image of his or her organization. You can almost think of these speeches as cheerleading speeches because the ultimate goal is to get people to like the speaker and what he or she represents. In the following brief speech, the CEO of British Petroleum is speaking to reporters about what his organization is doing during the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCfa6AxmUHw

Notice that he keeps emphasizing what his company is doing to fix the problem. Every part of this speech is orchestrated to make BP look caring and attempts to get some amount of goodwill from the viewing public.

Speeches of Justification

The second common speech of goodwill is the speech of justification, which is given when someone attempts to defend why certain actions were taken or will be taken. In these speeches, speakers have already enacted (or decided to enact) some kind of behavior, and are now attempting to justify why the behavior is or was appropriate. In the following clip, President Bill Clinton discusses his decision to bomb key Iraqi targets after uncovering a plot to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mpWa7wNr5M

In this speech, President Clinton outlines his reasons for bombing Iraq to the American people and the globe. Again, the goal of this speech is to secure goodwill for President Clinton’s decisions both in the United States and on the world stage.

Speeches of Apology

The final speech of goodwill is the speech of apology. Frankly, these speeches have become more and more commonplace. Every time we turn around, a politician, professional athlete, musician, or actor/actress is doing something reprehensible and getting caught. In fact, the speech of apology has quickly become a fodder for humor as well. Let’s take a look at a real apology speech delivered by professional golfer Tiger Woods.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xs8nseNP4s0

When you need to make an apology speech, there are three elements that you need to include: be honest and take responsibility, say you’re sorry, and offer restitution. First, a speaker needs to be honest and admit to doing something wrong. The worst apology speeches are those in which the individual tries to sidestep the wrongdoing. Even if you didn’t do anything wrong, it is often best to take responsibility from a public perception perspective. Second, say that you are sorry. People need to know that you are remorseful for what you’ve done. One of the problems many experts saw with Tiger Woods’s speech is that he doesn’t look remorseful at all. While the words coming out of his mouth are appropriate, he looks like a robot forced to read from a manuscript written by his press agent. Lastly, you need to offer restitution. Restitution can come in the form of fixing something broken or a promise not to engage in such behavior in the future. People in society are very willing to forgive and forget when they are asked.

Speeches for Commencements

The second type of inspirational speech is the speech of commencement , which is designed to recognize and celebrate the achievements of a graduating class or other group of people. The most typical form of commencement speech happens when someone graduates from school. Nearly all of us have sat through commencement speeches at some point in our lives. And if you’re like us, you’ve heard good ones and bad ones. Numerous celebrities and politicians have been asked to deliver commencement speeches at colleges and universities. One famous and well-thought-out commencement speech was given by famed Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling at Harvard University in 2008.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkREt4ZB-ck

J. K. Rowling’s speech has the perfect balance of humor and inspiration, which are two of the main ingredients of a great commencement speech.

If you’re ever asked to deliver a commencement speech, there are some key points to think through when deciding on your speech’s content.

• If there is a specific theme for the graduation, make sure that your commencement speech addresses that theme. If there is no specific theme, come up with one for your speech. Some common commencement speech themes are commitment, competitiveness, competence, confidence, decision making, discipline, ethics, failure (and overcoming failure), faith, generosity, integrity, involvement, leadership, learning, persistence, personal improvement, professionalism, reality, responsibility, and self-respect.
• Talk about your life and how graduates can learn from your experiences to avoid pitfalls or take advantages of life. How can your life inspire the graduates in their future endeavors?
• Make the speech humorous. Commencement speeches should be entertaining and make an audience laugh.
• Be brief! Nothing is more painful than a commencement speaker who drones on and on. Remember, the graduates are there to get their diplomas; their families are there to watch the graduates walk across the stage.
• Remember, while you may be the speaker, you’ve been asked to impart wisdom and advice for the people graduating and moving on with their lives, so keep it focused on them.
• Place the commencement speech into the broader context of the graduates’ lives. Show the graduates how the advice and wisdom you are offering can be utilized to make their own lives better.

Overall, it’s important to make sure that you have fun when delivering a commencement speech. Remember, it’s a huge honor and responsibility to be asked to deliver a commencement speech, so take the time to really think through and prepare your speech.

Key Takeaways

• There are eight common forms of ceremonial speaking: introduction, presentation, acceptance, dedication, toast, roast, eulogy, and farewell. Speeches of introduction are designed to introduce a speaker. Speeches of presentation are given when an individual is presenting an award of some kind. Speeches of acceptance are delivered by the person receiving an award or honor. Speeches of dedication are given when a new building or other place is being opened for the first time. Toasts are given to acknowledge and honor someone on a special occasion (e.g., wedding, birthday, retirement). Roasts are speeches designed to both praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored. Eulogies are given during funerals and memorial services. Lastly, speeches of farewell are delivered by an individual who is leaving a job, community, or organization, and wants to acknowledge how much the group has meant.
• Inspirational speeches fall into two categories: goodwill (e.g., public relations, justification, and apology) and speeches of commencement. Speeches of goodwill attempt to get audience members to view the person or organization more favorably. On the other hand, speeches of commencement are delivered to recognize the achievements of a group of people.
• Imagine you’ve been asked to speak before a local civic organization such as the Kiwanis or Rotary Club. Develop a sample speech of introduction that you would like someone to give to introduce you.
• You’ve been asked to roast your favorite celebrity. Develop a two-minute roast.
• Develop a speech of commencement for your public speaking class.

Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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7 Types of Informative Speeches

Learning Objectives

• Distinguish types of general informative speech topics.
• Determine an appropriate informative approach.

Informative Speeches

Now that you know the difference between informative and persuasive approaches, this chapter will explore types of topics and approaches suited well for informative speeches. Again, while any topic can be informative or persuasive, certain topics and approaches will help you to ensure you are delivering an informative speech. As you read the chapter, consider specific topics for each category that you may be able to deliver an informative speech on.

Types of Informative Speech Topics

O’Hair, Stewart, and Rubenstein identified six general types of informative speech topics: objects, people, events, concepts, processes, and issues (O’Hair, et al., 2007).

Objects: Your speech may include how objects are designed, how they function, and what they mean. For example, a student of one of our coauthors gave a speech on the design of corsets, using a mannequin to demonstrate how corsets were placed on women and the amount of force necessary to lace one up. Or you may speak about an artifact and what it means to a certain culture. For instance, the belt (and color of the belt) is significant to the karate culture.

People: People-based speeches tend to be biography-oriented. Such topics could include recounting an individual’s achievements and explaining why the person is important in history. Some speakers, who are famous themselves, will focus on their own lives and how various events shaped who they ultimately became. Dottie Walters is most noted as being the first female in the United States to run an advertising agency. In addition to her work in advertising, Dottie also spent a great deal of time as a professional speaker. She often would tell the story about her early years in advertising when she would push around a stroller with her daughter inside as she went from business to business trying to generate interest in her copywriting abilities. You don’t have to be famous, however, to give a people-based speech. Instead, you could inform your audience about a historical or contemporary hero whose achievements are not widely known.

Events: These are typically either historical or contemporary. For example, you could deliver a speech on a specific battle of World War II or a specific event that changed the course of history. If you’re a history buff, event-oriented speeches may be right up your alley. There are countless historical events that many people aren’t familiar with and would find interesting. You could also inform your audience about a more recent or contemporary event. Some examples include concerts, plays, and arts festivals; athletic competitions; and natural phenomena, such as storms, eclipses, and earthquakes. The point is to make sure that an informative speech is talking about the event (who, what, when, where, and why) and not attempting to persuade people to pass judgment upon the event or its effects.

Concepts:  Concepts are “abstract and difficult ideas or theories” (O’Hair, et al., 2007). For example, you may want to explain a specific communication theory, a religious idea, or inflation. Whether you want to discuss theories related to business, sociology, psychology, religion, politics, art, or any other major area of study, this type of speech can be very useful in helping people to understand complex ideas.

Process: A process speech helps audience members understand how a specific object or system works. For example, you could explain how a bill becomes a law in the United States. There is a very specific set of steps that a bill must go through before it becomes a law, so there is a very clear process that could be explained to an audience.

Issues: This informative speech topic is probably the most difficult for novice public speakers because it requires walking a fine line between informing and persuading. If you attempt to deliver this type of speech, remember the goal is to be balanced when discussing both sides of the issue. You are only explaining an issue, you are not proposing solutions or trying to get your audience to agree with your ideas.

If you are struggling with an informative topic, it helps to brainstorm ideas in each of these categories. Once you have a list of potential ideas, you can begin to narrow your ideas. One way to narrow your ideas is to consider the approach you will use with potential topics.

Approaches to Informative Speeches

Once you have decided on a potential topic, you can help to narrow your focus by determining an informative approach. There are three common informative approaches we will discuss in this section. Those are speeches of definition, description, and explanation.

Definitional Speeches

In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience. In these types of speeches, speakers may begin by giving the historical derivation, classification, or synonyms of terms or the background of the subject. In a speech on “How to identify a sociopath,” the speaker may answer these questions: Where did the word ‘sociopath’ come from? What is a sociopath? How many sociopaths are there in the population? What are the symptoms? Carefully define your terminology to give shape to things the audience cannot directly sense. Describing the essential attributes of one concept compared to another (as through the use of analogies) can increase understanding as well. For a speech on “Elderly Abuse,” the speaker may compare this type of abuse to a child or spousal abuse for contrast.

Regardless of the listeners’ level of knowledge about the subject, it is very important in these types of speeches to show the relevance of the topic to their lives. Often the topics discussed in definitional speeches are abstract—distanced from reality. Speakers need to provide explicit, real-life examples and applications of the subject matter to engage audience members. If you were going to give a speech about civil rights, you would need to go beyond commonly held meanings and show the topic in a new light. In this type of speech, the speaker points out the unique and distinguishing properties or boundaries of a concept in a particular context  (Rinehart, 2002). The meaning of “civil rights” has changed significantly over time. What does it mean today compared to the 1960s? How will knowing this distinction help audience members? What are some specific incidents involving civil rights issues in current news? What changes in civil rights legislation might listeners see in their lifetimes?

DEFINITIONAL EXAMPLE

Title:   “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings  (Thompson, 1999)

Specific Purpose:  At the end of my speech, my audience will understand the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism

Central Idea:  Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches a number of useful lessons you can apply to your own life.

• All life involves  dukkha  (suffering)
• Suffering is caused by  tanha  (longing for things to be other than they are)
• If this longing stops ( nirodha ), suffering will cease
• The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path
• Right intention
• Right speech
• Right action
• Right livelihood
• Right effort
• Right mindfulness
• Right contemplation

Descriptive Speeches

To gaze in wonder at that magnificent dome and elegant gardens will be a moment that you remember for the rest of your life. The Taj Mahal just takes your breath away. What is immediately striking is its graceful symmetry—geometric lines run through formal gardens ending in a white marble platform. Atop this platform is great white bulbous dome complemented by four towering minarets in each corner. The whole image shimmers in a reflecting pool flanked by beautiful gardens—the effect is magical. The first stretch by the reflecting pool is where most people pose for their photos. But we were impressed by the fresh, green gardens. As you approach through the gardens two mosques come into view flanking the Taj—both exquisitely carved and built of red sandstone.

In the descriptive speech, determine the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of the topic. What makes the person unique? How did the person make you feel? What adjectives apply to the subject? What kind of material is the object made from? What shape is it? What color is it? What does it smell like? Is it part of a larger system? Can it be seen by the naked eye? What is its geography or location in space? How has it changed or evolved over time? How does it compare to a similar object? When preparing for the speech, try to think of ways to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. As an example, in a speech about different types of curried dishes, you could probably verbally describe the difference between yellow, red, and green curry, but the speech will have more impact if the audience can see, smell, and taste samples.

DESCRIPTIVE EXAMPLE

Specific Purpose:  At the end of my speech, my audience will be able to visualize some of the main attractions on Easter Island.

Central Idea:  Easter Island hosts a number of ancient, mysterious, and beautiful attractions that make it an ideal vacation destination.

• Average 13 feet high; 14 tons
• Play sacred role for Rapa Nui (native inhabitants)
• Central Ahu ceremonial sites
• Snorkeling & Scuba
• Giant crater
• Sheer cliffs to ocean

Explanatory Speeches

An  explanatory speech (also known as a briefing) is similar to a descriptive speech in that they both share the function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory speeches focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. Whereas descriptive speeches attempt to paint a picture with words so that audiences can vicariously experience it, explanatory speeches focus on the  how  or  why  of a subject and its consequences. Thus, a speaker might give a  descriptive  speech on the daily life of Marie Antoinette, or an  explanatory  speech on how she came to her death. Recall that definitional speeches focus on delineating concepts or issues. In this case, a speaker might give a  definitional  speech about the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, or an  explanatory  speech on why the financial bailout was necessary for U.S. financial stability.

If a manager wanted to inform employees about a new workplace internet use policy, s/he might cover questions like: Why was a policy implemented? How will it help? What happens if people do not follow established policies? Explanatory speeches are less concerned with appealing to the senses than connecting the topic to a series of related other subjects to enhance a deep understanding (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2000). For example, to explain the custom of the Thai  wai  greeting (hands pressed together as in prayer), you also need to explain how it originated to show one had no weapons, and the ways it is tied to religion, gender, age, and status.

EXPLANATORY EXAMPLE

Title:   Giant Waves, Death, and Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami  (National Geographic, 2006)

Specific Purpose:  At the end of my speech, my audience will be aware of the nature of the 2004 Tsunami and the destruction it caused.

Central Idea:  The 2004 Asian Tsunami was one of the worst natural disasters in human history in terms of magnitude, loss of human life, and enduring impact.

• Earthquake epicenter and magnitude
• Tsunami forms (waves reach up to 100 feet)
• Tsunami strikes land of various countries with no warning
• The countries and people involved
• Loss of food, water, hospitals, housing, electricity, and plumbing
• Threat of disease
• Environmental destruction
• Economic devastation
• Psychological trauma

Setting yourself up for a successful informative speech begins in the early stages when you first start thinking about your topic. Remember to consider the type of informative speech topics and the informative approaches you can take as you are selecting a topic.

Key Takeaways

• Six general informative speech topics are objects, people, events, concepts, processes, and issues. Use these general categories to brainstorm ideas for your upcoming informative speech.
• Once you have decided on a potential topic, you can help to narrow down your topic by considering which informative approach you will use. Will you define, describe, or explain your topic?

Licenses and Attributions

Chapter 15 Types of Informative Speeches.  Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D..  Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

Taj Mahal, Agra, India.  Authored by : Yann.  Located at :  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal,_Agra,_India.jpg .  License :  CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Maoi at Rano Raraku.  Authored by : Aurbina.  Located at :  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Public Speaking Copyright © by Dr. Layne Goodman; Amber Green, M.A.; and Various is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Informative Speeches — Types, Topics, and Examples

What is an informative speech.

An informative speech uses descriptions, demonstrations, and strong detail to explain a person, place, or subject. An informative speech makes a complex topic easier to understand and focuses on delivering information, rather than providing a persuasive argument.

Types of informative speeches

The most common types of informative speeches are definition, explanation, description, and demonstration.

A definition speech explains a concept, theory, or philosophy about which the audience knows little. The purpose of the speech is to inform the audience so they understand the main aspects of the subject matter.

An explanatory speech presents information on the state of a given topic. The purpose is to provide a specific viewpoint on the chosen subject. Speakers typically incorporate a visual of data and/or statistics.

The speaker of a descriptive speech provides audiences with a detailed and vivid description of an activity, person, place, or object using elaborate imagery to make the subject matter memorable.

A demonstrative speech explains how to perform a particular task or carry out a process. These speeches often demonstrate the following:

How to do something

How to make something

How to fix something

How something works

How to write an informative speech

Regardless of the type, every informative speech should include an introduction, a hook, background information, a thesis, the main points, and a conclusion.

Introduction

An attention grabber or hook draws in the audience and sets the tone for the speech. The technique the speaker uses should reflect the subject matter in some way (i.e., if the topic is serious in nature, do not open with a joke). Therefore, when choosing an attention grabber, consider the following:

What’s the topic of the speech?

What’s the occasion?

Who’s the audience?

What’s the purpose of the speech?

Common Attention Grabbers (Hooks)

Ask a question that allows the audience to respond in a non-verbal way (e.g., a poll question where they can simply raise their hands) or ask a rhetorical question that makes the audience think of the topic in a certain way yet requires no response.

Incorporate a well-known quote that introduces the topic. Using the words of a celebrated individual gives credibility and authority to the information in the speech.

Offer a startling statement or information about the topic, which is typically done using data or statistics. The statement should surprise the audience in some way.

Provide a brief anecdote that relates to the topic in some way.

Present a “what if” scenario that connects to the subject matter of the speech.

Identify the importance of the speech’s topic.

Starting a speech with a humorous statement often makes the audience more comfortable with the speaker.

Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the audience needs to know to understand the speech in its entirety.

The thesis statement shares the central purpose of the speech.

Demonstrate

Preview the main ideas that will help accomplish the central purpose. Typically, informational speeches will have an average of three main ideas.

Body paragraphs

Apply the following to each main idea (body) :

Identify the main idea ( NOTE: The main points of a demonstration speech would be the individual steps.)

Provide evidence to support the main idea

Explain how the evidence supports the main idea/central purpose

Transition to the next main idea

Review or restate the thesis and the main points presented throughout the speech.

Much like the attention grabber, the closing statement should interest the audience. Some of the more common techniques include a challenge, a rhetorical question, or restating relevant information:

Provide the audience with a challenge or call to action to apply the presented information to real life.

Detail the benefit of the information.

Close with an anecdote or brief story that illustrates the main points.

Leave the audience with a rhetorical question to ponder after the speech has concluded.

Detail the relevance of the presented information.

Before speech writing, brainstorm a list of informative speech topic ideas. The right topic depends on the type of speech, but good topics can range from video games to disabilities and electric cars to healthcare and mental health.

Informative speech topics

Some common informative essay topics for each type of informational speech include the following:

Informative speech examples

The following list identifies famous informational speeches:

“Duties of American Citizenship” by Theodore Roosevelt

“Duty, Honor, Country” by General Douglas MacArthur

“Strength and Dignity” by Theodore Roosevelt

Explanation

“Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death” by Patrick Henry

“The Decision to Go to the Moon” by John F. Kennedy

“We Shall Fight on the Beaches” by Winston Churchill

Description

“I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King, Jr.

“Pearl Harbor Address” by Franklin Delano Roosevelt

“Luckiest Man” by Lou Gehrig

Demonstration

The Way to Cook with Julia Child

This Old House with Bob Vila

Bill Nye the Science Guy with Bill Nye

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Speech Acts & Events

This paper addresses John L. Austin’s theory of speech acts, originally introduced in How to Do Things with Words, as well as John R. Searle’s Speech Act. It begins with the description of the notion of speech acts particularly in terms of its definition considering the exact limits of the discussion. It follows with the history of speech act theory which focuses on how the pioneer of this theory, Austin, came up with his ideas which then were further explored by his most famous student at Oxford University, Searle. Regarding the history, this paper brings the distinction between performatives and constatives which were introduced by Austin and then moves to his most influential work, that is, locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. It continues with surveying the direct and indirect speech acts. Another important concept certainly ought to be mentioned is Searle’s five classifications of speech acts. Finally, to complete the discussion, this paper switches to speech events and Dell Hymes SPEAKING model.

Related Papers

Touria Drid

Prof. Dr. Fareed H Al-Hindawi

This paper is mainly concerned with proving that it is not Wittgenstein, the German philosopher, who actually seeded the main gist of the Speech Act Theory; there are others who preceded him (and all those who followed him, the first of whom is Austin) in doing so: Arab scholars. Accordingly , this work starts by reviewing the most basic ideas of the original theory proposed by Aus-tin and developed by Searle. The basic ideas presented by the Arabic theory are presented in the second section, and then a contrast between the two is made.

Augustinian: A Journal for Humanities, Social Sciences, Business, and Education., Vol. 19, Issue #1, pp. 35-45

Napoleon Mabaquiao

The speech act theory is one of the rigorous attempts to systematically explain the workings of language. It is not only widely influential in the philosophy of language, but in the areas of linguistics and communication as well. This essay traces the development of this theory from J. L. Austin's first formulation of the theory to John Searle's further systematization and grounding of it. The essay first situates the theory in the general approaches to the philosophy of language. After which, it explicates the main features of the theory as initially articulated by Austin and further improved by Searle. Among the innovations introduced by Searle, the essay highlights the following: the distinction between the utterance and propositional acts, the distinction between the effects of illocutionary acts and those of perlocutionary acts, a consistent set of criteria for classifying speech acts, and the grounding of speech acts in terms of rules and facts.

Loftur Árni Björgvinsson

This paper examines J.L. Austin's theory regarding speech acts, or how we do things with words. It starts by reviewing the birth and foundation of speech act theory as it appeared in the 1955 William James Lectures at Harvard before going into what Austin's theory is and how it can be applied to the real world. The theory is explained and analysed both in regards to its faults and advantages. Proposals for the improvement of the theory are then developed, using the ideas of other scholars and theorists along with the ideas of the author. The taxonomy in this essay is vast and various concepts and conditions are introduced and applied to the theory in order for it to work. Those conditions range from being conditions of appropriateness through to general principles of communication. In this essay utterances are examined by their propositional content, the intention of the utterance, and its outcome. By studying how utterances are formed and issued, along with looking into utterance circumstances and sincerity, one can garner a clear glimpse into what constitutes a performative speech act and what does not. By applying the ideas of multiple thinkers in unison it becomes clear that a) any one single theory does not satisfyingly explain all the intricacies of the theory and b) most utterances which are not in the past tense can be considered to be either performative or as having some performative force.

Florence O . Idowu

Vitaly Ogleznev

In this article the author explicates Herbert Hart's theory of an ascriptive language as it has been developed in his influential early paper " The Ascription of Responsibility and Rights ". In the section 'Discussion' the author argues that the theory of ascriptive legal utterances, which is grounded on Austin's and Searle's theory of a speech act, provides the methodological basis for his analytical approach to philosophical and legal issues. In the section 'Results' the author justifies that an ascriptive is a specific speech (illocutionary) act. In the section 'Conclusion' the matter concerns the original linguistic formula of an ascriptive that accurately reflects its nature. This article elaborates on the interpretation of ascriptive speech acts in legal language by evaluating the influence of philosophy of language on the formation of modern legal philosophy, along with evaluating the contribution of conceptual development of legal philosophy in the speech acts theory.

Siti Mutmainah

Omer Benjakob

A ‘pragmatic’ reading of computer-mediated communication through an attempt to conceptualize the neologism ‘text act’ by analyzing Facebook statuses. I first present a short introduction to the work of J.L. Austin to lay the basis for the idea of the ‘speech act’, and then attempt to claim that the same idea may be extended to text; namely to show how through computer-mediated communication (CMC) writing has shifted away from its ‘literal’ basis in favor of a pragmatic - or performative - one to form what some have already begun to call ‘text acts’. I will then elaborate on this concept and try to elucidate it through social network statuses (SNS), namely those exhibited - but more importantly - facilitated through Facebook.

Jerry Sadock

Sadock, Jerrold. 1994. Toward a Realistic Typology of Speech Acts. in S. L. Tsohatzidis, ed. Foundations of Speech Act Theory: Philosophical and Linguistic Perspectives, 393-406. London: Routledge, In contrast to the largely unmotivated, highly redundant , and partially incoherent, classificatory systems that are found in the influential works of Austin and Searle, I suggest that a more reasonable typology of speech acts should be based on three independent aspects of what kinds of information are encoded when we speak. 1) First, there an informational, representational aspect in which conversational negotiations are conducted in terms of propositions that can be judged for accuracy against real or possible conditions. This dimension corresponds in a way to Grice's notion of what is said; 2) then there is an effective, social aspect by means of which conventional effects on societally determined features of the world are portrayed and often achieved that corresponds to Austin's notion of illocutions 3) and last an affective, emotive aspect that is used to give vent to and/or to display real or apparent feelings of the speaker . Here some of what Searle intends to capture in his sincerity conditions is encoded. I will suggest that some of the most ordinary speech act types are characterized by very basic values in each of these motivated dimensions.

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How to Master the Art of the Impromptu Speech: 13 Practical Tips

• The Speaker Lab
• August 14, 2024

Table of Contents

Impromptu speeches can strike fear into the hearts of even the most seasoned speakers. The thought of standing up in front of a crowd with little to no preparation is enough to make your palms sweat and your heart race. But here’s the thing: with the right mindset and a few key strategies, you can absolutely crush your next impromptu speech.

Whether you’re speaking at a meeting, a wedding, or any other unexpected occasion, our pro tips will help you organize your thoughts, engage your audience, and speak with confidence. So, let’s dive in and discover how you can become an impromptu speaking rockstar!

What Is an Impromptu Speech?

If you’ve ever been asked to speak at an event without much notice, you know the feeling of panic that can set in. Suddenly, you’re expected to come up with something insightful and engaging to say in front of a crowd—with little to no time to prepare. This, my friend, is the dreaded impromptu speech.

But here’s the thing: impromptu speeches are a part of life. Whether it’s a toast at a wedding , a few words at a company meeting, or a class assignment, there will be times when you need to speak off-the-cuff. And while it can be nerve-wracking, mastering the art of impromptu speaking is a valuable skill that can serve you well in both your personal and professional life.

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Impromptu Speech Definition

So, what exactly is an impromptu speech? Simply put, it’s a speech that you have to make without much or any time to prepare. You might be given a topic on the spot, or you might have to come up with one yourself. Either way, you don’t have the luxury of crafting a carefully-written script or rehearsing your delivery.

Examples of an Impromptu Speech

Impromptu speeches can take many forms, from lighthearted toasts to serious discussions. In school, teachers might use impromptu speeches as homework assignments to help students develop communication skills and prepare for real-life situations. These speeches can be based on a wide range of prompts, from current events to celebrities to sports.

In the world of competitive public speaking, impromptu is a popular event. Participants have just a few minutes to select a topic, brainstorm ideas, outline their speech, and deliver it—all without the aid of notes. These speeches often follow a standard structure, with an introduction, body, and conclusion, and can be either serious or humorous in tone.

However, impromptu speeches aren’t just for students and competitors. In our daily lives, we might be called upon to say a few words at a birthday party, give a quick update at a meeting, or even deliver a eulogy at a funeral. The key is to be prepared for these moments, so you can speak with clarity and purpose—even when you don’t have time to prepare.

Tips for Delivering an Effective Impromptu Speech

So, you need to give an impromptu speech. Maybe it’s at a wedding, or a company meeting, or even a class assignment. Whatever the occasion, the prospect of standing up and speaking off-the-cuff can be intimidating. But fear not. With a few key strategies, you can learn to deliver effective impromptu speeches with confidence and ease.

Focus on What You Already Know

When you’re given an impromptu speech topic, it’s tempting to try to come up with something entirely new and original. But the trick is to not overthink it; you don’t have to reinvent the wheel. Instead, focus on what you already know. Draw on your own experiences, knowledge, and opinions to craft a speech that feels authentic and genuine.

For example, if you’re asked to speak about a current event, think about how it relates to your own life or work. If you’re dealing with a more abstract topic, like “happiness” or “success,” consider what those concepts mean to you personally. By grounding your speech in your own perspective, you’ll be able to speak with authority and conviction.

Pretend You’re Having a Conversation

One of the biggest challenges of impromptu speaking is the pressure to perform. When you’re standing in front of a crowd, it’s easy to feel like you need to be polished and perfect. But here’s the thing: your audience doesn’t expect perfection. They just want to hear what you have to say.

So, instead of trying to deliver a flawless speech, pretend you’re having a conversation. Imagine you’re talking to a friend or colleague, and speak in a natural, conversational tone. Use simple language and short sentences, and don’t be afraid to pause or take a breath when you need to. By speaking like a human, rather than a robot, you’ll be able to connect with your audience on a more personal level.

Finish Early

When you’re giving an impromptu speech, it can be tempting to try to fill up all the allotted time. After all, you don’t want to seem unprepared or like you don’t have enough to say. But here’s a counterintuitive tip: it’s okay to finish early. In fact, finishing early can be a sign of confidence and clarity. If you’ve made your point and don’t have anything else to add, there’s no need to ramble on just for the sake of filling time. Instead, wrap up your speech with a strong conclusion and a clear call-to-action. Your audience will appreciate your brevity and your ability to get to the point.

Don’t Panic

Finally, the most important tip for delivering an effective impromptu speech is simply this: don’t panic. It’s normal to feel nervous or anxious when you’re asked to speak without preparation. But remember, your audience is on your side. They want you to succeed, and they’re not expecting perfection.

So take a deep breath, smile, and remind yourself that you’ve got this. Focus on your message, speak from the heart, and trust that your words will resonate with your listeners. With a little practice and a lot of self-confidence, you’ll be delivering killer impromptu speeches in no time.

Impromptu Speech Frameworks and Techniques

If you’re about to give an impromptu speech and have just a few minutes to prepare, don’t panic. There are some simple frameworks and techniques you can use to structure your thoughts quickly and deliver a coherent, engaging speech. Namely, there’s the diplomatic approach, the storytelling approach, and the 5 W’s framwork.

The Diplomatic Approach

One useful framework for impromptu speeches is the diplomatic approach. Start by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of the topic, then wrap up with a conclusion. This allows you to present a balanced perspective and speak for a longer time than some other frameworks. Just remember, it’s okay to pause and collect your thoughts if needed.

The Storytelling Approach

Another effective technique, especially for more informal events, is storytelling. Begin with a personal anecdote related to the topic (the small), expand to a broader group or national perspective (the medium), and conclude with the big picture implications (the large). This creates a natural flow and helps you connect with your audience.

The 5 W’s Framework

If you’re speaking about a specific event or person, try the 5 W’s framework:

• Who is involved
• What is the event or goal
• Where is it taking place
• When is it happening
• Why is it important

Following this structure provides instant organization to your impromptu speech. You can start with the context of who and end on the most impactful note of why it matters.

No matter what approach you use, the key with any impromptu speech is to avoid rambling or getting off track. Focus on one or two main points and support them with examples, anecdotes, or facts. And if you’re really in a bind, don’t be afraid to embrace the power of brevity. A shorter speech delivered with confidence is better than a long, meandering one.

Remember, the ability to speak informally with limited preparation time is an invaluable skill. Whether it’s a class assignment, a business meeting, or a social event, being able to think on your feet and communicate effectively will serve you well. With practice and these frameworks in mind, you’ll be ready to tackle any impromptu speaking occasion that comes your way.

Mastering the Art of Topic Selection

One of the most daunting aspects of an impromptu speech can be selecting a topic to speak about with little or no advance notice. But with a few strategies up your sleeve, you can confidently rise to the challenge and even have fun with it.

Consider Your Audience

First, consider your audience and the event itself. What subjects would be appropriate and engaging for that particular crowd and occasion? If you’re at a business conference, topics related to your industry, current market trends, or professional development would be suitable. At a wedding, you might speak about relationships, love, or personal growth.

Work with What You Already Know

Next, think about your own experiences, knowledge, and passions. You’ll always speak more naturally and engagingly about a topic you genuinely care about or have firsthand insights on. Perhaps you have a unique perspective on a current event, a lesson you learned from a challenge you overcame, or an area of expertise from your studies or career. Don’t be afraid to draw from your own life and share your story.

If you’re really stumped, try a brainstorming technique like mind mapping. Jot down the first word or phrase that comes to mind, then branch out with related ideas and see where it takes you.

Make Your Impromptu Speech Unique

Another tip: embrace the element of surprise. An unexpected or even quirky topic can be memorable and help you stand out. Just be sure to keep it appropriate for the audience and event. For example, you could speak about what we can learn from children’s books or how your favorite hobby relates to success in life.

Ultimately, the best impromptu speech topic is one that you can speak about sincerely, passionately, and from a place of knowledge or experience. Trust your instincts, don’t overthink it, and remember—the speech itself is what matters most. With practice and an open mind, you’ll soon be a pro at thinking on your feet and crafting a compelling speech on the fly.

Impromptu Speaking in Various Everyday Settings

Impromptu speeches can pop up when you least expect them. Whether you’re in a business meeting, at a speaking event, or even back in graduate school, being able to think on your feet and speak off-the-cuff is a valuable skill.

In the business world, impromptu speaking often comes into play during meetings. You might be called upon to give an update on a project or weigh in on a decision. In this case, the ability to organize your thoughts quickly and articulate them clearly can make a big impression on your colleagues and superiors.

At speaking events, you may find yourself fielding questions from the audience or even being asked to fill in for a speaker who couldn’t make it. Being prepared for these impromptu moments can help you seize opportunities to showcase your expertise and connect with potential clients.

Even in academic settings like graduate school or business school, impromptu speaking skills come in handy. You might be asked to lead a discussion or debate a point in class. The more comfortable you are thinking and speaking on the spot, the more you’ll be able to contribute and make the most of your education.

The key in all these situations is to stay calm, focus on what you know, and structure your thoughts in a clear, logical way. With practice, you’ll be able to handle any impromptu speaking scenario with confidence and poise.

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Developing Your Impromptu Speaking Skills

So how do you get better at impromptu speaking? The short answer is practice. In addition, there are several specific things you can do to hone your skills.

Practice Communication and Quick Thinking

First, work on your general communication skills. The better you are at expressing yourself clearly and concisely, the easier it will be to do so on the spot. Consider joining a group like Toastmasters to get regular practice speaking in front of others.

Next, make a habit of practicing quick thinking. This could mean participating in improv classes or even just challenging yourself to come up with a short speech on a random topic in a limited amount of time. The more you practice thinking on your feet, the more natural it will become.

Stay Informed

Another helpful exercise is to stay informed on a wide range of topics. The more knowledge you have to draw upon, the easier it will be to formulate thoughts and opinions on the fly. Make a point to read widely, watch the news, and engage in discussions on various subjects.

Seek Opportunities to Improve

Finally, don’t be afraid to embrace the discomfort of impromptu speaking. It’s normal to feel nervous or put on the spot. But the more you put yourself in those situations, the more comfortable you’ll become. Over time, you’ll start to see impromptu speaking not as a source of anxiety, but as an opportunity to share your ideas and make an impact.

With dedication and practice, you can turn impromptu speaking into a strength—a skill that will serve you well in all areas of life. It may not happen overnight, but if you commit to developing this ability, you’ll be amazed at how far it can take you. From the boardroom to the stage, the power to speak with confidence at a moment’s notice is one that will open doors and create opportunities you never imagined.

FAQs in Relation to Impromptu Speech

What are the 3 parts of impromptu speech.

An intro that grabs attention, a body with your main points, and a crisp conclusion that ties everything together.

What is an example of an impromptu?

Giving a sudden thank-you speech at work when awarded unexpectedly counts as an impromptu.

How do you prepare for impromptu speaking?

Brush up on current topics. Practice thinking on your feet. Stay calm and collected no matter what comes up.

How to do a 2 minute impromptu speech?

Pick one idea. Support it with two strong points. Wrap it up clearly. Keep eye contact and breathe.

Impromptu speeches don’t have to be a source of anxiety. By focusing on what you already know, pretending you’re having a conversation, and using simple frameworks, you can deliver an engaging and effective speech on the fly. Remember, the key is to stay calm, be yourself, and let your passion for the topic shine through. With practice and experience, you’ll become more and more comfortable with impromptu speaking until it feels like second nature. So, the next time you’re called upon to give an impromptu speech, take a deep breath, smile, and know that you’ve got this. You have the skills and the confidence to captivate your audience and leave a lasting impression.

• Last Updated: August 6, 2024

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Nervous about making a speech? Life Kit can help

Nervous about making a speech life kit can help..

It can be anxiety-inducing to deliver a speech in front of an audience. NPR's Life Kit talks with a speechwriter and a speech coach to get their best tips for public speaking.

Copyright © 2024 NPR. All rights reserved. Visit our website terms of use and permissions pages at www.npr.org for further information.

NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by an NPR contractor. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR’s programming is the audio record.

• Voter Guide
• Michigan Politics
• John Carlisle
• M.L. Elrick
• Observer & Eccentric

Harris, Walz bring historic campaign to Michigan, rallying at Detroit Metro Airport

Taking the stage before a rollicking crowd gathered at a hot Detroit Metro Airport hangar on Wednesday night, Vice President Kamala Harris made her first appearance as the Democratic presidential nominee in Michigan, introducing Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz as her running mate, and saying "the path to the White House runs right through this state."

"I know we are all clear about what we are up against," Harris told the crowd, referring to the threat she said is posed by the Republican nominee, former President Donald Trump and his conservative agenda. But she said in the speech that began just before 8 p.m. that Democrats were not grim about their chances or the effort ahead. "Understand that in this fight, we are happy warriors," she said. "Hard work is good work."

"This election is going to be a fight," she said as the speech got underway. "We like a good fight. When you know what you stand for, you know what to fight for and we know what we stand for."

Moments into her speech, Harris rebuked a small group of hecklers chanting slogans about genocide in Gaza.

"If you want Donald Trump to win, then say that, otherwise I'm speaking." Harris said as she flashed a withering stare at the protesters, who were drowned out by the rest of the crowd before being escorted out.

Harris said Trump's election, if it were to happen, would threaten fundamental freedoms, exacerbate climate change and damage health care access.

"In the next 90 days we need you to use your power ... we need you to energize and organize and mobilize and make your voices heard," she said, as she wrapped up a speech that lasted for about a half hour. "When we fight, we win!"

Come back to www.freep.com for updated coverage.

Speaking before Harris came out, Walz revved up a crowd he said he was told was the largest to date of any rally of the Democratic campaign this year.

"It’s been a pretty interesting 24 hours for me, I have to be honest," said Walz, referring to his joining Harris for their first rally together Tuesday in Philadelphia. Noting that thousands came out to the airport and stood in the heat to be part of the effort to elect Harris, he said. "This is a place full of working folks, students, folks who care ... you did it (attended the rally) for one simple and beautiful and eloquent reason, you love this country."

Walz also said while Republicans "try to steal the joy from this country," Harris "emanates" it. Several speakers echoed the joy theme, calling Trump dark and divisive.

Both Walz and Harris gave shout-outs to union leaders, including UAW Shawn Fain, who spoke at the rally as well.

The UAW, said Harris, "knows what they fight for and knows how to win."

The rally was boisterous and at times profane but the crowd loved it swaying to the music and waving campaign placards.

Gov. Gretchen Whitmer scored the loudest welcome of the warm-up speakers. She spoke just before Harris and Walz took the stage, praising their background while denouncing Trump.

"The truth is we can’t afford another four years of Donald Trump," she said. "A second term of Donald Trump would be an unmitigated disaster…. You wouldn’t buy a used car from this guy, much less trust him with the auto industry."

"We need a strong woman in the White House and it’s about damn time," Whitmer shouted to thunderous applause.

She also said she's been in a friendly competition to outdo Walz' accomplishments as governor for years. "He's the only governor I know who curses more than I do," she said.

Rally comes as the Democrats' fortunes have turned

Harris and Walz' appearance in metro Detroit comes just weeks after President Joe Biden, beset by questions about his age and mental and physical acumen being raised by critics in his own party, agreed to step aside as the presumptive Democratic nominee , endorsing Harris.

That touched off a political whirlwind that quickly saw Harris, a former U.S. senator and state attorney general from California, become the first Black woman and South Asian woman to secure a major party's nomination for president. In a span of days, Harris locked down support across the party without any serious effort to challenge her, as a burst of enthusiasm propelled her polling numbers higher nationally and in Michigan.

According to the RealClearPolitics.com average of polls done in the state, Harris had a 2-percentage-point lead on Trump in Michigan as of Wednesday. Prior to Biden's leaving the race, the Republican former president had a lead of about that much over Biden. On the day Biden stepped aside, a Free Press poll showed Trump with a 7-point lead over Biden , the highest such showing for a Republican presidential candidate in Michigan in decades.

Michigan is considered, along with Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, a key part of the "blue wall" that Democrats need to hold the White House. In 2016, Trump narrowly won all three in route to winning the race over Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton; Biden beat Trump in all three four years ago.

Trump has made five visits to Michigan this year, the most recent being a rally in Grand Rapids on July 20, a week after an assassination attempt against him at a rally outside Pittsburgh. Biden has been in the state four times, most recently at a rally at Detroit's Renaissance High on July 12. Harris also visited Kalamazoo in July and in February was part of a roundtable discussion on the need for abortion access in Grand Rapids.

By the beginning of this week, Democrats had voted in a virtual roll call to make Harris the nominee ahead of the national convention in Chicago beginning Aug. 19. On Tuesday, she ended two weeks of speculation over who her vice presidential nominee would be by naming Walz, an avuncular and popular governor in Minnesota, who as a hunter, former high school coach and plainspoken Midwesterner is expected to play well in Michigan. The two kicked off a swing state tour on Tuesday in Philadelphia before heading to Eau Claire, Wisconsin, on Wednesday ahead of the trip to metro Detroit.

Harris and Walz were set to hold another event in metro Detroit on Thursday before heading to Phoenix.

Energy high at rally but several in crowd need medical attention

The energy among the crowd in the packed and hot airport hangar on Wednesday was palpable, with several thousand supporters lining up hours in advance to get inside. By 4:30 p.m., 2 1/2 hours before Harris and Walz were to speak, the hanger was full, with many guests wearing Harris pins or carrying pre-printed signs. Loudspeakers blasted upbeat music and the crowd, which was standing, began dancing at times. After the event got underway, the Detroit Youth Choir got a huge ovation when they completed their set.

There were several instances where it appeared some in the audience needed medical attention because of the heat. Harris, Walz and Whitmer all had to stop their speeches at various moments to call for medics to help people in the audience.

The rally at the hangar also appeared to steal a page from Tump's playbook. He's hosted rallies at hangars in Waterford and Saginaw this year. The crowd in Romulus was pulsing as the Vice President's plane, Air Force Two, pulled up outside with its robin's egg nose cone glistening in the sunshine.

Harris emerged from the plane with "Freedom" by Beyoncé and Kendrick Lamar blasting over the loudspeakers.

Gloria Polk, 79, of Detroit, was sweating in the heat but excited to be at the rally. She’d tried to get onto an earlier Harris rally on Zoom but couldn’t get in.

“I was at the Obama rally in Detroit (in 2008) and I sense a similar vibe,” she said. “But this energy came in two weeks.”

Polk said she likes Harris and what she stands for. “I think the fact that that she cooks and dances makes her everybody's person,” she said.

Leslie Wagner, 61, of Grosse Pointe, is a psychologist who was giddy at the thought of seeing Harris. “I saw Geraldine Ferraro (who was the Democratic vice presidential nominee to Walter Mondale in 1984 and the first woman to be a major party's vice presidential nominee) speak, when she ran,” she said. “I saw Hillary Clinton when she was supporting her husband and I'd really like the first woman president to be Kamala Harris.”

Sandra Richardson-Smith of Detroit, said she considers the election crucial to the future of the country. She refused to say Trump's name, saying she only refers to him as 45, the number president he was.

"I'm concerned about the prospect of losing our democracy," she said. "That other president has no program. He's a felon,"

But the Democratic tour wasn't going without challenge: Ahead of Wednesday's rally, U.S. Sen. JD Vance of Ohio, who Trump has named as his vice presidential nominee, made remarks outside the police department in Shelby Township in Macomb County, which Trump has won in each of the last two elections. Vance specifically hit Harris for the Biden administration's failure to stop a surge in undocumented immigrants coming across the southern border for months. Trump has promised to round up illegal immigrants and institute a mass deportation policy if reelected.

Harris' campaign, however, is expected to underscore the argument that the Biden administration had reached a bipartisan deal in Congress to increase funding for border agents and detention facilities only to see it fail when Trump came out against it.

Before the rally, Republican National Committee Chairman Michael Whatley issued a statement blaming Harris for high inflation rates and gas prices. "Michiganders won’t be fooled by the Harris-Walz campaign focused on memes, celebrity endorsements and pushing their extreme agenda far and wide," he said.

And some of the criticism came from a crowd of around 50 pro-Palestinian demonstrators gathered outside the event to oppose Harris' appearance.

"As the Biden-Harris administration continues to facilitate almost daily massacres across Gaza, we see through the empty attempts to distance a presidential nominee from her complicity in genocide," said Assmaa Eidy of Dearborn.

Protesters wore Palestinian keffiyehs and waved Palestinian flags as they held signs reading "abandon genocide." Loudspeakers and drumming accompanied chants like "Harris, Harris you can't hide, you are funding genocide." Police vehicles and officers on foot blocked off traffic outside the terminal to allow for the protest and legal observers were onsite.

JD Vance: GOP VP nominee takes aim at Harris, Walz on immigration, policing in Michigan speech

Other Democratic leaders speak before Harris

Prior to the 7 p.m. remarks by Harris and Walz at Detroit Metro Airport, a host of speakers took the stage, including Lt. Gov. Garlin Gilchrist and Democratic members of Michigan's U.S. House delegation. U.S. Rep. Debbie Dingell, D-Ann Arbor, who urged Democrats to take the threat posed by Trump in Michigan more seriously eight years ago, said, “I feel a lot better now than I did in 2016."

"Donald Trump is not going to win Michigan,” Dingell said. “Michigan will not let them win. We’re going to hold them accountable.”

U.S. Rep. Dan Kildee, D-Flint Township, reminded the crowd of Harris’ visit to Flint during the city’s water crisis when lead contamination was found in the drinking supply. "She didn’t have to do that,” Kildee said. “She did it because she believes that everybody deserves a shot.”

Detroit Mayor Mike Duggan praised Biden and Harris for passing the infrastructure bill that authorized billions in aid to Michigan . He also recalled a visit to the Trump White House when he thought he was going to get word of Trump’s infrastructure plan. Duggan said Trump complained for 30 minutes about how mean CNN had been to him before discussing infrastructure.

“He said there’s no federal money for infrastructure but if you mayors want to build toll roads, you can do that,” Duggan said. “That was his plan.”

Fain, in his remarks, praised Harris as a "badass woman who has stood on the picket line" with workers, including with UAW workers when they struck General Motors in 2019, and denounced Trump − who has repeatedly attacked Fain and UAW brass for endorsing the Democratic ticket − as a "lapdog of the billionaire class," doing little when union auto plants in Michigan, Ohio and Maryland closed during his presidency.

He also noted that Trump began to speak much more favorably about electric vehicles, which he had criticized as expensive and impractical, when Tesla founder Elon Musk endorsed him and committed to helping fund a Super PAC supporting Trump. None of Tesla's plants are unionized.

As for Walz, the UAW president said labor urged that he be selected as Harris' running mate, calling him "a working class guy with working class values."

Contact Todd Spangler: [email protected]. Follow him on Twitter@tsspangler.

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We're Shaking: Bravo's Hosting Fan Events in NYC, LA & Miami This Fall (TICKETS)

From Bravo Fan Fest to drag brunches at the Diamonds & Rosé Experience, there are plenty of chances to celebrate your favorite shows this fall. 

Summer may be winding down, but things are only heating up in the Bravo universe. In case you missed it, there are  lots  of fabulous events happening across the country for Bravo fans, and we have all of the details you need to make sure you don't miss a single moment. 

If you're the kind of Bravoholic with a group chat full of fellow fans that's just an endless stream of memes, theories and breaking Bravo news, you're going to love all of the happenings we have in store. From  The Real Housewives -themed drag brunches to chances to catch early screenings of your very favorite shows, there are plenty of chances to celebrate your Bravo fandom this fall. 

With events in Los Angeles, New York City, and Miami, there has never been so many opportunities to whoop it up . And if you're located somewhere in-between these stunning locales, may we suggest planning a group trip of your own? (Disclaimer: It's up to you to make sure your accommodations have enough bathtubs to suit your group's needs.) Read on to see how you can sip Pumptinis and mingle with Bravolebs. 

What everyone's talking about on Bravo:

Your Chance to Buy Watch What Happens Live Tickets Is Officially Here (In Miami!)   Inside Bravo's Diamonds & Rosé Experience, Where Shotskis and Pumptinis Await (PICS) Jackpot! BravoCon Returns to Las Vegas in 2025 and We Have ALL the Details

The Diamonds & Rosé Experience by Bravo in NYC and LA

Now through October, visit The Diamonds and Rosé Experience by Bravo in either New York City or Los Angeles. (Or both! Who's stopping you?) This immersive fan experience is filled with photo opportunities inspired by iconic Bravo moments, such as Teresa Giudice's   The Real Housewives of New Jersey   table flip and that time Luann de Lesseps fell into a bush on  The Real Housewives of New York City .  There's also exclusive Bravo merch you won't find anywhere else, and some of the most chic Bravo-inspired decor (if we may say so ourselves). You have the option of booking general admission, brunch, or drag brunch. 

To secure your spot at The Diamonds and Rosé Experience by Bravo , purchase tickets for  Los Angeles  or  New York City  now. For the latest news and details, follow @ bravotvexperience , @ labucketlist , or @ nybucketlist .

Watch What Happens Live  in Miami

Ever wanted to secure a spot in the  Watch What Happens Live with Andy Cohen   audience? Now's your chance. Five shows will be recorded in Miami  on Thursday, Nov. 21 and Friday, Nov. 22 at Ice Palace Studios. The full list of Bravolebrities who will attend, as well as more details about what fans can expect once they arrive, will be shared soon, but expect to see appearances from  Below Deck ,  Married to Medicine ,  The Real Housewives of Atlanta ,  The Real Housewives of Miami ,  The Real Housewives of New York City ,  The Real Housewives of Potomac ,  The Real Housewives of Salt Lake City ,  Southern Charm , and  Summer House . 

Tickets to the five  WWHL  shows in Miami this November are available for purchase at  www.BravoFanFest.com .

Bravo Fan Fest in Miami

On Saturday, Nov. 23, following  WWHL  in Miami, get ready for Bravo Fan Fest , an "intimate one-day celebration where fans can experience themed activations, panels and photo opportunities." There'll be a lineup of 25 familiar faces from  Below Deck ,  Married to Medicine ,  The Real Housewives of Atlanta ,  The Real Housewives of Miami ,  The Real Housewives of New York City ,  The Real Housewives of Potomac ,  The Real Housewives of Salt Lake City ,  Southern Charm , and  Summer House . 

Tickets are now on sale at  www.BravoFanFest.com . Text BFF to  917-809-2240  to be the first to receive updates on Bravo Fan Fest and more of our upcoming events! Messaging and data rates may apply. 

Watch Party by Bravo

Chances are, you've already seen some Watch Party by Bravo content on your newsfeed over the last few months. It's the official Bravo watch party, where you'll play games, watch early screenings of new episodes, and mingle with Bravolebs. And guess what? The next one's coming soon.

Details on our next advanced screening are coming this week.  Text “WATCH PARTY” to 917-809-2240  to be notified when info is available or check out our current fall events lineup now. Messaging & data rates may apply.

BravoCon 2025

You didn't think we forgot all about BravoCon, did you? In April, it was announced that the epic celebration will return to Las Vegas in 2025 . And while that's not actually an event happening this fall, it's still an exciting Bravo moment to jot down in your calendar for next year. Taking place on November 14, 15, and 16, 2025, tickets and details will be announced at a later date. 

Shop Bravo merchandise

With all these events, you probably need something to wear, right? Try this exclusive ShopByBravo.com merchandise on for size. 

• Experiences By Bravo

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• Olympic Studies Centre
• Olympic Refuge Foundation

IOC President’s speech – Paris 2024 Closing Ceremony

Please find below the full speech delivered by International Olympic Committee (IOC) President Thomas Bach during the Closing Ceremony of the Olympic Games Paris 2024 today, 11 August 2024.

© 2024 Getty Images

Dear President of the French Republic, Mr. Emmanuel Macron,

Dear President of the Paris 2024 Organising Committee, my fellow Olympian and dear friend, Tony Estanguet,

Dear Mayor of Paris, Mrs. Anne Hidalgo,

Dear Olympic friends,

Dear fellow Olympians,

Despite all the tensions in our world, you came here from all the 206 National Olympic Committees and the IOC Refugee Olympic Team, to make the City of Light shine brighter than ever before.

Your performances were amazing. You competed fiercely against each other. Every contest on the edge of perfection. Every performance sparking excitement around the world. You showed us what greatness we humans are capable of.

During all this time, you lived peacefully together under one roof in the Olympic Village. You embraced each other. You respected each other, even if your countries are divided by war and conflict. You created a culture of peace.

This inspired all of us and billions of people around the globe. Thank you for making us dream. Thank you for making us believe in a better world for everyone.

We know that the Olympic Games cannot create peace. But the Olympic Games can create a culture of peace that inspires the world. This is why I call on everyone who shares this Olympic spirit: let us live this culture of peace every single day.

These Olympic Games could only inspire the world, because our French friends have prepared the stage. And what an amazing stage it was!

Millions of people celebrating the athletes in the streets of Paris and all across France. Millions of spectators in iconic venues creating an overwhelming atmosphere. More than half of the world’s population sharing this spectacular celebration of the unity of humankind in all our diversity.

The Olympic Games Paris 2024 were a celebration of the athletes and sport at its best. The first Olympic Games delivered fully under our Olympic Agenda reforms: younger, more urban, more inclusive, more sustainable. The first ever Olympic Games with full gender parity.

These were sensational Olympic Games from start to finish – or dare I say: SEINE-sational Games.

The Olympic Games Paris 2024 were Olympic Games of a new era.

That is why I would like to thank all our French friends. First and foremost, my warmest thanks go to the President of the Republic, Emmanuel Macron, for his tireless support. My heartfelt thanks goes to the Organising Committee, under the excellent leadership of my fellow Olympian, Tony Estanguet, for making these Games wide open. All my gratitude goes to the public authorities at all levels and to the public services, for their essential contribution.

All our thanks and recognition go to our Olympic community – the National Olympic Committees, the International Federations, our TOP partners and the Media Rights- Holders. Together, you have contributed to Olympic Games of a new era in every respect. And for this you can be proud forever.

A special thank you to all the wonderful volunteers. You will be forever in our hearts.

Dear French friends, you have fallen in love with the Olympic Games. And we have fallen in love with all of you.

Thank you Paris, thank you France!

Long live the Olympic Games! Long live France!

[Flame extinguishing]

And now, with my heart full of emotions, I have to perform one more task: I declare the Games of the XXXIII Olympiad Paris 2024 closed.

In accordance with tradition, I call upon the youth of the world to assemble four years from now in Los Angeles, United States of America, to celebrate with all of us the Games of the XXXIV Olympiad.

The International Olympic Committee is a not-for-profit, civil, non-governmental, international organisation made up of volunteers which is committed to building a better world through sport. It redistributes more than 90 per cent of its income to the wider sporting movement, which means that every day the equivalent of USD 4.2 million goes to help athletes and sports organisations at all levels around the world.

For more information, please contact the IOC Media Relations Team: Tel: +41 21 621 6000, email: [email protected] , or visit our web site at www.ioc.org .

Broadcast quality footage

The IOC Newsroom: https://newsroom.olympics.com/

YouTube: www.youtube.com/iocmedia

For an extensive selection of photos available shortly after each event, please follow us on Flickr .

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IOC President Thomas Bach announces that he will not consider an extension of his term 

Farida Abaroge and Kasra Mehdipournejad: meet the flagbearers of the IOC Refugee Olympic Team at the Paris 2024 Closing Ceremony 

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• Grand Rapids/Muskegon
• Saginaw/Bay City
• All Michigan

Our top photos from Kamala Harris’ Detroit rally with Tim Walz

• Updated: Aug. 08, 2024, 11:00 a.m.
• | Published: Aug. 08, 2024, 9:45 a.m.

• Jacob Hamilton | [email protected]

WAYNE COUNTY, MI – The nation’s highest politics descended upon Metro Detroit on Wednesday, with Vice President Kamala Harris hosting a rally with her newly-selected running mate, Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, in a packed airplane hangar Detroit Metro Airport.

About 15,000 people filled the hangar, the crowd spilling out onto the tarmac and cheering as Air Force Two arrived. Michigan Democrats including Detroit Mayor Mike Duggan, U.S. Reps. Elissa Slotkin, Debbie Dingell and Shri Thanedar and U.S. Sen. Debbie Stabenow joined Gov. Gretchen Whitmer and Lt. Gov. Garlin Gilchrist in welcoming the Harris and her running mate.

READ MORE: ‘Fight for the future,’Kamala Harris rallies crowd of 15,000 in Michigan

In front of a raucous crowd, the candidates highlighted their own accomplishments and directed criticism at their opponents - former President Donald Trump and his running mate J.D. Vance, who made an appearance earlier Wednesday in suburban Sterling Heights. A group of Pro-Palestinian protesters briefly interrupted the vice president before they were removed.

MLive visual journalists were there to capture all the spectacle of the fly-in visit. Check out some of our favorite photos below or click the gallery above to see more.

U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz arrive aboard Air Force Two during a rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

U.S. Rep. Dan Kildee, D-Flint Twp, speaks during a Kamala Harris and Tim Walz rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Sherlynn James dances on the tarmac in front of the hangar where Kamala Harris and Tim Walz held a rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Attendees wave signs as Kamala Harris speaks during a rally with Tim Walz at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Tim Walz speaks during a rally with Kamala Harris at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Kamala Harris arrives during a rally with Tim Walz at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Kamala Harris speaks during a rally with Tim Walz at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Retiring U.S. Sen. Debbie Stabenow introduces the Democratic nominee for her senate seat, U.S. Rep. Elissa Slotkin, during a Kamala Harris and Tim Walz rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

From left - U.S. Rep. Alyssa Slotkin, Sen. Debbie Stabenow, Vice President Kamala Harris, Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer and Lt. Gov. Garlin Gilchrist pose during a Kamala Harris and Tim Walz rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

Tim Walz waves to attendees as he departs after a Kamala Harris and Tim Walz rally at Detroit Wayne County Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, Mich. on Wednesday, Aug. 7 2024. Jacob Hamilton | MLive.com

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