sample of case study in education

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Case studies.

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Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: https://sites.psu.edu/pedagogicalpractices/case-studies/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the National Science Teaching Association.

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The NCCSTS Case Collection, created and curated by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, on behalf of the University at Buffalo, contains over a thousand peer-reviewed case studies on a variety of topics in all areas of science.

Cases (only) are freely accessible; subscription is required for access to teaching notes and answer keys.

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Development of the NCCSTS Case Collection was originally funded by major grants to the University at Buffalo from the National Science Foundation , The Pew Charitable Trusts , and the U.S. Department of Education .

• Case Studies

Teaching Guide

• Using the Open Case Studies Website
• Using the UBC Wiki
• Open Educational Resources
• Case Implementation
• Get Involved
• Process Documentation

Case studies offer a student-centered approach to learning that asks students to identify, explore, and provide solutions to real-world problems by focusing on case-specific examples (Wiek, Xiong, Brundiers, van der Leeuw, 2014, p 434). This approach simulates real life practice in sustainability education in that it illuminates the ongoing complexity of the problems being addressed. Publishing these case studies openly, means they can be re-used in a variety of contexts by others across campus and beyond. Since the cases never “end”; at any time students from all over UBC campus can engage with their content, highlighting their potential as powerful educational tools that can foster inter-disciplinary research of authentic problems. Students contributing to the case studies are making an authentic contribution to a deepening understanding of the complex challenges facing us in terms of environmental ethics and sustainability.

The case studies are housed on the UBC Wiki, and that content is then fed into the Open Case Studies website. The UBC Wiki as a platform for open, collaborative course work enables students to create, respond to and/or edit case studies, using the built in features (such as talk pages, document history and contributor track backs) to make editing transparent. The wiki also also helps students develop important transferable skills such as selection and curation of multimedia (while attending to copyright and re-use specifications), citation and referencing, summarizing research, etc. These activities help build critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and digital literacy.

This guide is intended to help you get started with your case study project by offering:

• Information on how to use the UBC Wiki
• Research that supports case studies as effective tools for active learning
• Instructional strategies for teaching effectively with case studies
• Sample case study assignments used by UBC instructors

The UBC Wiki is a set of webpages accessible to anyone with a CWL account and has many unique features in addition to collaborative writing including the ability to revive previous drafts, and notifications setting that can support instructors in monitoring individual student contributions, or support students to better manage their collaborative efforts on their own. Using a wiki successfully in a course, however, requires proper facilitation and support from instructors and TAs.

The following links are helpful in getting started:

General Information:

• Navigating the Wiki: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Navigation
• Wiki Help Table of Contents: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Contents
• Frequently Asked Questions: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Contents#Frequently_Asked_Questions

Self-Guided Wiki Tutorials:

• Getting Started With UBC Wiki - short video and links to common formatting needs.
• Beginner: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Documentation:MediaWiki_Basics/Learning_Activities/Beginner
• Intermediate: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Documentation:MediaWiki_Basics/Learning_Activities/Intermediate
• Advanced: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Documentation:MediaWiki_Basics/Learning_Activities/Advanced

The idea that learning is "active" is influenced by social constructivism , which emphasizes collaboration in the active co-construction of meaning among learners. Simply put, learning happens when people collaborate and interact with authentic learning tasks and situations. These ideas are becoming increasingly prevalent in the scholarly literature on teaching and learning (see for instance, Wilson 1996) and have important implications for pedagogy, especially in the university where traditional lectures remain the dominant instructional strategy. When students are asked to respond to authentic problems and questions, they assume responsibility for the trajectory of their learning, rather than it being decided upon by the instructor. This practice, also referred to as “student-centered learning” allows the students to become “active” participants in the construction of their understandings.

One of the easiest ways to develop higher order cognitive capacities (critical thinking, problem solving, creativity etc.) is through pedagogies that support inquiry based learning, thereby allowing students the opportunity to “develop [as] inquirers and to use curiosity, the urge to explore and understand...to become researchers and lifelong learners” (Justice, Rice, Roy, Hudspith & Jenkins,2009, p. 843). Because case studies are often collaborative, they provide unique inquiry based learning opportunities that will foster active engagement in student learning, while also teaching transferable skills (teamwork, collaboration, technology literacy). That the cases never “end” and that they can be considered by students and faculty from all over the UBC community, highlights their potential as powerful educational tools that can foster inter-disciplinary research of authentic problems.

Using case studies successfully in a course requires purposefully scaffolded support from the instructor and TA's. Instructors must properly introduce assignments, as well as facilitate and monitor the progress of students while they work on assignments. This will help ensure that students understand the purpose and value of the work they are doing and will also allow instructors and TA's to provide appropriate support and guidance.

The following instructional strategies will help you teach effectively using case studies:

1. Getting Started:

• Outline Your "Big Picture" Goals and Expectations : Communicate to students what you are hoping they will learn (Or have them tell you why they think you would ask them to work with case studies!). It is also important to discuss the quality of work you expect and offer specific examples of what that looks like. If you have any, look at exemplars of past student work, or simply evaluate existing case studies to generate a list of defining characteristics. Doing this will provide students with valuable tangible and visual examples of what you expect.
• Define "Case Study" : Don't assume that students understand what case-studies are, especially at the undergraduate level. Take the time to talk about what a case study is and why they are powerful teaching/learning tools. This can be facilitated during a tutorial with small group discussion. See Case Study Resources.
• Pick Case Studies Purposefully : If you are planning on having students evaluate case studies, make sure to read them in advance and have a clear understanding of why you chose it. This will help facilitate discussion and field student questions.
• Set the Context for the Evaluating or Creating the Case Study : Whether you are having students write the case studies themselves, or you are having them examine an existing case, it is important to set the parameters for how you want students to approach the problem. For instance, you may have them evaluate the case from the perspective of an industry professional, a community group or member, or even from their own perspective of university students. Whatever you choose, make sure you communicate this clearly.
• Set the Parameters for Evaluating or Creating the Case Study : Clearly outline all the information you want students to find out, and how you want it reported. You may want students to focus on some areas and disregard others, or you may want them to consider all the facts equally. Whatever you choose, make sure you communicate this clearly.

2. Use, Revise, and/or Create

• Use the case studies as they are : One way to use the case studies in courses is to have students read and discuss them as they are. They can be read on the open case studies website, downloaded from the wiki and embedded into another website, or downloaded in PDF or Microsoft Word format (see this guide for how to embed or download the case studies)
• If you are only making minor edits such as fixing a broken link or a typo, please go ahead. You could add a note about this to the "discussion" page to explain (see the tab at the top of each wiki page).
• You could add a section at the bottom of the case study with a perspective on it from your discipline. Some of the case studies already have sections at the bottom that are titled "What would a ___ do?" You can add a new one of those to give a different disciplinary perspective.
• If you want to make more substantial changes, it would be best if you copied and pasted the wiki content into a new page so as to preserve the original. The original version may be used in other courses by the instructor/students who created it, so making significant changes could be a problem! And those changes might be reverted by the original instructor and students (wiki pages keep all past versions, and those changes can easily be reverted). If you would like to substantially revise a case study, please contact Christina Hendricks, who can help you get started and then get the new version into the collection: [email protected]
• Create new case studies : We are always looking for new case studies for the collection! If you think you would like to write one, or involve your students in writing one, please contact Christina Hendricks: [email protected]

3. Guiding Case Study Discussions:

• Ask open-ended questions : Open-ended questions cannot be answered using "yes" or "no". Be careful when wording discussion questions, allowing them to be as open as possible.
• Listen Actively : Actively listen to students by paraphrasing what they have said to you and saying it back (e.g. "What I heard is....Is this what you meant?"). This will help you pay close attention to what they say and clarify any possible miscommunication.
• Role Play : Ask students to take on the perspective of different interested parties in considering the case study.
• Compare and Contrast : Ask students to compare and contrast cases in similar areas from the open case study collection. Discuss whether there are similar problems or possible solutions for the cases.

4. Staying on Track:

• Develop a Protocol for Collaboration : Have students outline how they will collaborate at the start of the assignment to ensure that the work is shared evenly and that each student has a purposeful role.
• Set Benchmark Assignments : Make sure students stay on track by requiring smaller assignments or assessments along the way. This can be as simple as coming to tutorial with a portion of the case-study written for peer critique and analysis.
• Give Students Adequate Time : Allow students enough time to read and consider case-studies thoughtfully. The more time you can provide, the less overwhelmed students will feel. This will encourage them to go deeper with their case study and their learning.
• Forestry : In this assignment, students in a graduate course wrote their own case studies. This link provides information on the assignment, a handout given to the students, and a grading rubric: Short-Term Assignment: What is Illegal Logging? - Teacher Guide
• Political Science : Students in a third-year political science class responded to a case study written by the instructor. They worked in groups to create action plans for climate change problems. This link provides information on the assignment as well as a handout given to the students: Class Activity: Action Plans for Climate Change - Teacher Guide
• Education : Teacher candidates in the Faculty of Education respond to case studies written by students. They discuss a case study and respond to questions with the goal of identifying the issues raised, perspectives involved and possible ways forward. The goal is to support decision making related to online presence and social media engagement. Digital Tattoo Case Studies for Student Teachers Facilitators' Guide

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Case Studies

Case studies provide an opportunity for students to examine real world problems or concerns and apply their knowledge. Learning about mental health issues? Provide students with a case study in which they determine possible mental health disorders and treatment options. Examining instructional strategies? Provide students with a learning situation and have them design an instructional plan.

Case studies can represent a significant upfront prep time unless you have access to high quality examples from your textbook or other reputable sources. However, what they provide for student learning is well worth the time it takes to develop a few of them for your course.

Case Studies are useful to engage students in critical thinking and real world application of the course material. There are various formats for case studies, but most formats include the use of questioning that helps students analyze a scenario or concept.

Case Study Formats

• Include a brief description of the scenario or concept (2 paragraphs or so)
• Identify key concepts
• Summarize the scenario or concept
• Describe the problem with the scenario or concept
• Determine the possible causes to the problem
• Analyze the elements of the scenario or concept
• Assess current solutions to the problem related to the concept or scenario
• Create a solution to the problem related to the concept or scenario
• Identify the problem
• Provide background information on the scenario or concept
• Evaluate the case
• Propose solutions to the problem
• Offer recommendations on how to implement the solutions to the problem

“Writing a Case Study Analysis.” (n.d.). Ashford University Writing Center . Retrieved from https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/writing-case-study-analysis

Additional Resources

• Trial and Error: Digital Case Studies (OLC). This resource explains the pros and cons of case studies in online courses.
• Case Method Group Activity (University of Central Florida: Teaching Online Pedagogical Repository). This resource contains examples of case studies in online courses.

A Case for Case Study Research in Education

Cite this chapter.

• Kit Grauer  

This chapter makes the case that case study research is making a comeback in educational research because it allows researchers a broad range of methodological tools to suit the needs of answering questions of “how” and “why” within a particular real-world context. As Stake (1995) suggests, case study is often a preferred method of research because case studies may be epistemologically in harmony with the reader’s experience and thus to that person a natural basis for generalization.

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Grauer, K. (2012). A Case for Case Study Research in Education. In: Klein, S.R. (eds) Action Research Methods. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137046635_4

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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How to... Write a teaching case study

• What is a teaching case study?

A discussion-based case study is an education tool to facilitate learning about, and analysis of, a real-world situation.

A case study provides a well-researched and compelling narrative about an individual, or a group of people, that needs to make a decision in an organisational setting.

The case study narrative includes relevant information about the situation, and gives multiple perspectives on the problem or decision that needs to be taken, but does not provide analysis, conclusions, or a solution.

On this page...

How does a case study work in education, top tips for writing a case study, what is the difference between teaching cases and research focused cases.

• Writing the case study

How to write a teaching note

• Final thoughts

The Emerald Cases Hub

Which publication would suit my case study.

Read about getting ready to publish and visit the Emerald Cases Hub for courses and guides on writing case studies and teaching notes.

Teaching cases expose students to real-world business dilemmas in different cultural contexts.

Students are expected to read the case study and prepare an argument about the most appropriate course of action or recommendation, which can be debated in a facilitated case study class session, or documented in a case study assignment or examination.

A case teaching note, containing recent and relevant theoretical and managerial frameworks, will be published alongside the teaching case, and can be used to demonstrate the links between course content and the case situation to support teaching of the case method.

Teaching case studies have a distinctive literary style: they are written in the third person, in the past tense, and establish an objectivity of core dilemmas in the case.

We have gathered some top tips for you to think about as your write your case study.

Collect information

Cases can be based on primary or secondary data; however, carrying out interviews with the protagonist and others in the organisation, where possible, often results in a better and more balanced case study.

Make sure that you have all the materials you will need before you start the writing process. This will speed up the actual process. Most case studies have a mixture of primary and secondary sources to help capture the spirit of the protagonist.

Structure the narrative

Tell the story in chronological order and in the past tense. Identify and establish the central protagonist and their dilemma in the first paragraph and summarise the dilemma again at the end of the case.

Develop the protagonist

Ensure the protagonist is a well-developed character and that students can identify with their motivations throughout the case.

Get permission

When you submit your case study and teaching note, you must include signed permission from the relevant protagonist or company featured in the case and for any material for which you don’t own the copyright. 

Be clear on your teaching objective

The case method offers a variety of class participation methods, such as discussion, role-play, presentation, or examination. Decide which method best suits the case you want to write. 

Identify case lead author

You might want to consider writing your case study in partnership with colleagues. However, if you are writing a case with other people you need to make sure that the case reads as one voice.

You do not have to share the work evenly. Instead, play to your individual strengths: one author might be better at data analysis, one a better writer. Agree and clarify the order of appearance of authors. This is very important since this cannot be changed after publication.

Write a thorough teaching note

A well-written case study needs an equally well-written teaching note to allow instructors to adopt the case without the need for additional research. The standard teaching note provides key materials such as learning objectives, sample questions and answers, and more. See 'What to include in your teaching note' to produce effective teaching note for your case.

Writing a teaching case requires a distinctive literary style; it should be written in the third person, in the past tense, and establish objectivity of the core dilemmas in the case.

To begin with, a case has to have a hook: an overriding issue that pulls various parts together, a managerial issue or decision that requires urgent attention. 

The trick is to present the story so that the hook is not immediately apparent but ‘discovered’ by students putting the relevant pieces together. More importantly, the hook must be linked to a particular concept, theory, or methodology. 

A teaching case reflects the ambiguity of the situation and need not have a single outcome, as the intent is to create a dialogue with students, encourage critical thinking and research, and evaluate recommendations.

Research cases are a methodology used to support research findings and add to the body of theoretical knowledge, and as such are more academically-focused and evidence-based.

Writing a case study

How to write & structure a case

• Write in the past tense
• Identify and establish an issue/problem which can be used to teach a concept or theory

The opening paragraph should make clear:

• Who the main protagonist is 
• Who the key decision maker is 
• What the nature of the problem or issue is 
• When the case took place, including specific dates 
• Why the issue or problem arose

The body of the case should:

• Tell the whole story – usually in a chronological order 
• Typically contain general background on business environment, company background, and the details of the specific issue(s) faced by the company 
• Tell more than one side of the story so that students can think of competing alternatives

The concluding paragraph should:

• Provide a short synthesis of the case to reiterate the main issues, or even to raise new questions

Before you start, choose where to publish your case study and familiarise yourself with the style and formatting requirements.

Get ready to publish  

What to include in your teaching note

Case synopsis.

Provide a brief summary (approximately 150-200 words) describing the case setting and key issues. Include:

• Name of the organisation
• Time span of the case study
• Details of the protagonist
• The dilemma facing the protagonist
• Sub-field of academia the case is designed to teach (e.g., market segmentation in the telecommunications sector).

Target audience

Clearly identify the appropriate audience for the case (e.g., undergraduate, graduate, or both).  Consider:

• Possible courses where the case can be used
• Level of difficulty
• Specific pre-requisites
• Discipline(s) for which the case is most relevant

If there are multiple target audiences, discuss different teaching strategies.

Top tip: remember that the deciding factor for most instructors looking to find a case for their classroom is relevancy. Working with a specific audience in mind and sharing guidance on case usage helps develop the applicability of your case.

Learning objectives

Set a minimum of one objective for a compact case study and three to four for a longer case. Your objectives should be specific and reflective of the courses you suggest your case be taught in. Make it clear what students can expect to learn from reading the case.

Top tip: Good learning objectives should cover not only basic understanding of the context and issues presented in the case, but also include a few more advanced goals such as analysis and evaluation of the case dilemma.

Research methods

Outline the types of data used to develop the case, how this data was gathered, and whether any names/details/etc. within the case have been disguised. Please note that you will need to obtain consent from the case protagonist/organisation if primary data has been used. Cases based on secondary data (i.e., any information that is publicly available) are not required to obtain consent.

Teaching plan and objectives

Provide a breakdown of the classroom discussion time into sections. Include a brief description of the opening and closing 10-15 minutes, as well as challenging case discussion questions with comprehensive sample answers.

Provide instructors a detailed breakdown of how you would teach the case in 90 minutes. Include:

• Brief description of the opening 10-15 minutes.
• Suggested class time, broken down by topics, assignment questions, and activities.
• Brief description of the closing 10-15 minutes. Reinforce the learning objectives and reveal what actually happened, if applicable

Assignment questions and answers

Include a set of challenging assignment questions that align with the teaching objectives and relate to the dilemma being faced in the case.

Successful cases will provide:

• Three to five questions aligned to the learning objectives.
• A combination of closed, open-ended, and even controversial questions to create discussion.
• Questions that prompt students to consider a dilemma from all angles.

Successful sample answers should:

• Provide an example of an outstanding (A+) response to each question. To illustrate the full range of potential answers, good teaching notes often go on to provide examples of marginal and even incorrect responses as well.
• Draw from recent literature, theory, or research findings to analyse the case study.
• Reflect the reality that a case may not necessarily have a single correct answer by highlighting a diversity of opinions and approaches.

Supporting material

Supporting materials can include any additional information or resources that supplement the experience of using your case. Examples of these materials include  such as worksheets, videos, reading lists, reference materials, etc. If you are including classroom activities as part of your teaching note, please provide detailed instructions on how to direct these activities.

Test & learn

When you have finished writing your case study and teaching note, test them!

Try them out in class to see if students have enough information to thoughtfully address the case dilemma, if the teaching note supports an engaged class discussion, and if the teaching note assignments/lesson plan timing are appropriate. Revise as needed based on the class experience before submitting.

Guide to writing a teaching note

Our short PDF guide will give you advice on writing your teaching note, what you should include and our top tips to creating an effective teaching note.

Download our guide

Final thoughts on writing

What makes a great teaching case?

• Written in the case teaching narrative style, not in the style of a research article
• Classroom tested, making it much more robust
• Objective, considering all sides of a dilemma
• Aligned with the objectives of the publication in which it is included
• Structured to allow for relevant learning outcomes, enabling students to meet them effectively

Common review feedback comments

• The case requires additional information in order to be taught
• A lack of detail
• Suggested answers are not supported by the case
• Learning objectives which apply a model without a purpose
• No sample answers
• Not written in the third person or past tense
• No analysis or lessons learned

What makes a good teaching note?

• Clear learning objectives
• Suggested class time, broken down by topics
• Suggested student assignment
• Brief description of the opening and closing 10-15 minutes and case synopsis
• Challenging case discussion questions with sample answers
• Supporting materials – worksheets, videos, readings, reference material, etc
• Target audience identified
• If applicable, an update on ‘what actually happened’

Register on the Emerald Cases Hub to access free resources designed by case-writing experts to help you write and publish a quality case study. Develop your skills and knowledge with a course on writing a case study and teaching note, view sample cases, or explore modules on teaching/leaning through the case method.

Visit the Emerald Cases Hub

A key factor in boosting the chances of your case study being published is making sure it is submitted to the most suitable outlet. Emerald is delighted to offer two key options: 

Emerging Markets Case Studies (EMCS)

EMCS welcomes well-researched, instructive, and multimedia online cases about the most interesting companies in complex emerging market contexts, to be used by faculty to develop effective managers globally. 

Cases must be factual and be developed from multiple sources, including primary data sourced and signed-off by the company involved.  

Find out more about EMCS

The CASE Journal (TCJ)

TCJ is the official journal of The CASE Association, the leading online, double-blind, peer-reviewed journal featuring factual teaching cases and case exercises spanning the full spectrum of business and management disciplines.

TCJ invites submissions of cases designed for classroom use.  

Find out more about TCJ

The journal peer review process

Understand the journal and case study peer review process and read our tips for revising your submission.

Submit your case study

Submit your case through your chosen channel’s online submission site, find author support and understand your next steps to publish your case study.

Competitions

We partner with a range of organisations to offer case writing competitions. Applying for an award opens the door to the possibility of you receiving international recognition and a cash prize.

Student Case Study

Ai generator.

Delving into student case studies offers invaluable insights into educational methodologies and student behaviors. This guide, complete with detailed case study examples , is designed to help educators, researchers, and students understand the nuances of creating and analyzing case studies in an educational context. By exploring various case study examples, you will gain the tools and knowledge necessary to effectively interpret and apply these studies, enhancing both teaching and learning experiences in diverse academic settings.

What is a Student Case Study? – Meaning A student case study is an in-depth analysis of a student or a group of students to understand various educational, psychological, or social aspects. It involves collecting detailed information through observations, interviews, and reviewing records, to form a comprehensive picture. The goal of a case study analysis is to unravel the complexities of real-life situations that students encounter, making it a valuable tool in educational research. In a case study summary, key findings are presented, often leading to actionable insights. Educators and researchers use these studies to develop strategies for improving learning environments. Additionally, a case study essay allows students to demonstrate their understanding by discussing the analysis and implications of the case study, fostering critical thinking and analytical skills.

Download Student Case Study Bundle

Schools especially those that offers degree in medicine, law, public policy and public health teaches students to learn how to conduct a case study. Some students say they love case studies . For what reason? Case studies offer real world challenges. They help in preparing the students how to deal with their future careers. They are considered to be the vehicle for theories and concepts that enables you to be good at giving detailed discussions and even debates. Case studies are useful not just in the field of education, but also in adhering to the arising issues in business, politics and other organizations.

Student Case Study Format

Case Study Title : Clear and descriptive title reflecting the focus of the case study. Student’s Name : Name of the student the case study is about. Prepared by : Name of the person or group preparing the case study. School Name : Name of the school or educational institution. Date : Date of completion or submission.

Introduction

Background Information : Briefly describe the student’s background, including age, grade level, and relevant personal or academic history. Purpose of the Case Study : State the reason for conducting this case study, such as understanding a particular behavior, learning difficulty, or achievement.

Case Description

Situation or Challenge : Detail the specific situation, challenge, or condition that the student is facing. Observations and Evidence : Include observations from teachers, parents, or the students themselves, along with any relevant academic or behavioral records.

Problem Analysis : Analyze the situation or challenge, identifying potential causes or contributing factors. Impact on Learning : Discuss how the situation affects the student’s learning or behavior in school.

Intervention Strategies

Action Taken : Describe any interventions or strategies implemented to address the situation. This could include educational plans, counseling, or specific teaching strategies. Results of Intervention : Detail the outcome of these interventions, including any changes in the student’s behavior or academic performance.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary of Findings : Summarize the key insights gained from the case study. Recommendations : Offer suggestions for future actions or strategies to further support the student. This might include recommendations for teachers, parents, or the student themselves.

Best Example of Student Case Study

Overcoming Reading Challenges: A Case Study of Emily Clark, Grade 3 Prepared by: Laura Simmons, Special Education Teacher Sunset Elementary School Date: May 12, 2024 Emily Clark, an 8-year-old student in the third grade at Sunset Elementary School, has been facing significant challenges with reading and comprehension since the first grade. Known for her enthusiasm and creativity, Emily’s struggles with reading tasks have been persistent and noticeable. The primary purpose of this case study is to analyze Emily’s reading difficulties, implement targeted interventions, and assess their effectiveness. Emily exhibits difficulty in decoding words, reading fluently, and understanding text, as observed by her teachers since first grade. Her reluctance to read aloud and frustration with reading tasks have been consistently noted. Assessments indicate that her reading level is significantly below the expected standard for her grade. Parental feedback has also highlighted Emily’s struggles with reading-related homework. Analysis of Emily’s situation suggests a potential learning disability in reading, possibly dyslexia. This is evidenced by her consistent difficulty with word recognition and comprehension. These challenges have impacted not only her reading skills but also her confidence and participation in class activities, especially those involving reading. To address these challenges, an individualized education plan (IEP) was developed. This included specialized reading instruction focusing on phonemic awareness and decoding skills, multisensory learning approaches, and regular sessions with a reading specialist. Over a period of six months, Emily demonstrated significant improvements. She engaged more confidently in reading activities, and her reading assessment scores showed notable progress. In conclusion, the intervention strategies implemented for Emily have been effective. Her case highlights the importance of early identification and the implementation of tailored educational strategies for students with similar challenges. It is recommended that Emily continues to receive specialized instruction and regular monitoring. Adjustments to her IEP should be made as necessary to ensure ongoing progress. Additionally, fostering a positive reading environment at home is also recommended.

18+ Student Case Study Examples

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Case Study Definition

A case study is defined as a research methodology that allows you to conduct an intensive study about a particular person, group of people, community, or some unit in which the researcher could provide an in-depth data in relation to the variables. Case studies can examine a phenomena in the natural setting. This increases your ability to understand why the subjects act such. You may be able to describe how this method allows every researcher to take a specific topic to narrow it down making it into a manageable research question. The researcher gain an in-depth understanding about the subject matter through collecting qualitative research and quantitative research datasets about the phenomenon.

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

If a researcher is interested to study about a phenomenon, he or she will be assigned to a single-case study that will allow him or her to gain an understanding about the phenomenon. Multiple-case study would allow a researcher to understand the case as a group through comparing them based on the embedded similarities and differences. However, the volume of data in case studies will be difficult to organize and the process of analysis and strategies needs to be carefully decided upon. Reporting of findings could also be challenging at times especially when you are ought to follow for word limits.

Example of Case Study

Nurses’ pediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ pediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about pediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analyzed separately and then compared and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

How do you Write a Case Study for Students?

1. choose an interesting and relevant topic:.

Select a topic that is relevant to your course and interesting to your audience. It should be specific and focused, allowing for in-depth analysis.

2. Conduct Thorough Research :

Gather information from reputable sources such as books, scholarly articles, interviews, and reliable websites. Ensure you have a good understanding of the topic before proceeding.

3. Identify the Problem or Research Question:

Clearly define the problem or research question your case study aims to address. Be specific about the issues you want to explore and analyze.

4. Introduce the Case:

Provide background information about the subject, including relevant historical, social, or organizational context. Explain why the case is important and what makes it unique.

5. Describe the Methods Used:

Explain the methods you used to collect data. This could include interviews, surveys, observations, or analysis of existing documents. Justify your choice of methods.

6. Present the Findings:

Present the data and findings in a clear and organized manner. Use charts, graphs, and tables if applicable. Include direct quotes from interviews or other sources to support your points.

7. Analytical Interpretation:

Analyze the data and discuss the patterns, trends, or relationships you observed. Relate your findings back to the research question. Use relevant theories or concepts to support your analysis.

8. Discuss Limitations:

Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or research methods. Addressing limitations shows a critical awareness of your study’s scope.

9. Propose Solutions or Recommendations:

If your case study revolves around a problem, propose practical solutions or recommendations based on your analysis. Support your suggestions with evidence from your findings.

10. Write a Conclusion:

Summarize the key points of your case study. Restate the importance of the topic and your findings. Discuss the implications of your study for the broader field.

What are the objectives of a Student Case Study?

1. learning and understanding:.

• To deepen students’ understanding of a particular concept, theory, or topic within their field of study.
• To provide real-world context and practical applications for theoretical knowledge.

2. Problem-Solving Skills:

• To enhance students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities by analyzing complex issues or scenarios.
• To encourage students to apply their knowledge to real-life situations and develop solutions.

3. Research and Analysis:

• To develop research skills, including data collection, data analysis , and the ability to draw meaningful conclusions from information.
• To improve analytical skills in interpreting data and making evidence-based decisions.

4. Communication Skills:

• To improve written and oral communication skills by requiring students to present their findings in a clear, organized, and coherent manner.
• To enhance the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively to both academic and non-academic audiences.

5. Ethical Considerations:

To promote awareness of ethical issues related to research and decision-making, such as participant rights, privacy, and responsible conduct.

6. Interdisciplinary Learning:

To encourage cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary thinking, allowing students to apply knowledge from multiple areas to address a problem or issue.

7. Professional Development:

• To prepare students for future careers by exposing them to real-world situations and challenges they may encounter in their chosen profession.
• To develop professional skills, such as teamwork, time management, and project management.

8. Reflection and Self-Assessment:

• To prompt students to reflect on their learning and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in research and analysis.
• To foster self-assessment and a commitment to ongoing improvement.

9. Promoting Innovation:

• To inspire creativity and innovation in finding solutions to complex problems or challenges.
• To encourage students to think outside the box and explore new approaches.

10. Building a Portfolio:

To provide students with tangible evidence of their academic and problem-solving abilities that can be included in their academic or professional portfolios.

What are the Elements of a Case Study?

A case study typically includes an introduction, background information, presentation of the main issue or problem, analysis, solutions or interventions, and a conclusion. It often incorporates supporting data and references.

How Long is a Case Study?

The length of a case study can vary, but it generally ranges from 500 to 1500 words. This length allows for a detailed examination of the subject while maintaining conciseness and focus.

How Big Should a Case Study Be?

The size of a case study should be sufficient to comprehensively cover the topic, typically around 2 to 5 pages. This size allows for depth in analysis while remaining concise and readable.

What Makes a Good Case Study?

A good case study is clear, concise, and well-structured, focusing on a relevant and interesting issue. It should offer insightful analysis, practical solutions, and demonstrate real-world applications or implications.

Case studies bring people into the real world to allow themselves engage in different fields such as in business examples, politics, health related aspect where each individuals could find an avenue to make difficult decisions. It serves to provide framework for analysis and evaluation of the different societal issues. This is one of the best way to focus on what really matters, to discuss about issues and to know what can we do about it.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Education Case Study Examples for Students

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3 August 2020

Health Policy - Vaca Virus simulation on HP412 Global Health Security

This was a one-day simulation activity on the course HP412 ( Global Health Security ), which recreated the governance decisions of an outbreak of ‘Vaca Virus’ in the country of ‘Esperanza’. The activity unfolded over the course of the day with new information, such as the development of vaccines, civil unrest and community resistance, which each actor had to react to in real time. 

10 June 2020

LSE Faith Centre - Faith and Climate Action Leadership Programme

In 2019 the LSE Faith Centre launched a new leadership programme: ‘Faith and Climate Action’. The team looked at how religious perspectives and faith communities are contributing to climate action, both in terms of the theological inspiration they bring to the conversation and the social capital they can harness to affect change amongst the 80% of the global population who hold a faith. 

7 April 2020

Law - Self-assessment cover sheet for formative work

Encouraging students on LL104 - Law Of Obligations to think for themselves about how marking criteria apply to their work, and to stimulate more active engagement with the formative feedback process.

4 February 2020

Methodology - Developing post-graduate research skills

Combining a blog-post, a project outline and peer-feedback in the formative assignment has equipped students with key graduate attributes focusing on communication, structure, coherence, and self-assessment, as well as creates a feeling of community in Methodology's post-graduate courses.

6 December 2019

Anthropology - Developing undergraduate assessment

The Department of Anthropology recently streamlined the assessment on its undergraduate programme(s). The overall amount of summative assessment has been reduced, and the bottleneck of coursework essays during vacations removed. This streamlining has introduced diversity of assessment formats, but aimed to reduce student stress and build familiarity with the formats by mirroring assessment formats across the years. 

19 November 2019

LSE Library - Feedback activities

The Library team set up a feedback board to ask students how they felt they could support them during exam season. They also set up creative feedback activities, inviting students to create ‘eggmojis’ to express how they felt about using the Library and to create and display poems about the Library with magnetic poetry.

18 November 2019

Economics - The First Year Challenge - creating greater sense of community

The First Year Challenge is an innovative way of creating greater sense of community among first year students and introducing them to the field of economics and LSE heritage. Small groups of students explore London together and, given sets of clues, produce a short video at the end of the project with a prize for the best video.

4 July 2019

European Institute - The diversity of Muslim communities in London

Esra Ozyurek enabled her students to discover the diversity of Muslim communities in London in her Religious Diversity and Conflict in Europe course ( EU475 ).

31 May 2019

Language Centre - En un Lugar en Londres

En un lugar de Loñdres (In a certain place in London) is a research-based project which aims at developing language learning and increasing sociolinguistic awareness through the observation and contextualization of London’s Spanish linguistic landscapes on-land and online. Learners are encouraged to wander the city and to engage with the people behind those linguistic landscapes.

This is an update to an initial case study posted in September 2017.

2 April 2019

Language Centre - Interviewing London's French speakers

Students must find and interview a French speaker in London, then write up the interview and create a piece of ‘digital storytelling’ from it. The activity develops multiple student skills: interviewing, writing an article (similar to a magazine or newspaper), and editing video and/or audio with a student voiceover and other visual/audio elements – a deliberately creative assessment.

18 March 2019

Methodology - GitHub

We introduced the free online repository and version control service GitHub to share course materials, submit summative assessment, and provide feedback for most of the computational methods courses at the Department of Methodology. This innovation enables learning-by-doing and facilitates collaboration.

5 March 2019

Statistics - Research Internships

During 2017 and 2018 I carried out two research projects in collaboration with two 3 rd year undergraduate students. Both projects were aimed at supervising and developing an undergraduate student’s interest in research. 

19 February 2019

Mathematics - Exam feedback through script viewing

We gave undergraduate students examination feedback by allowing them to view their marked unseen written examination scripts, with full solutions available in advance and with the examiners present at the sessions.

Statistics - MSc Data Science capstone project

We introduced a capstone project module in our MSc in Data Science programme, which enables our students to apply the knowledge gained in our programme to real-world data science projects, by working in collaboration with capstone project partners. 

Mathematics - Oral Examination

We implemented a high-stake oral examination.  100% of the final grade for two year 3 financial mathematics modules was determined by oral assessment.

18 February 2019

Statistics - Industry Practitioners Challenge

We organise the LSE Statistics Practitioners’ Challenge for BSc and MSc students. During this event, we collaborate with leading industry partners to initiate competitive projects focusing on real issues faced by companies. Students, who take on the challenge, use their personal and professional skills developed through their program at LSE. 

Mathematics - Professional and Personal Development Seminars

This case study is about the PPD Seminar Series which the Department of Mathematics runs for its first-year students.

Statistics - Diversifying assessment and transferable skills

Combining diversified assessment with development of communication and other transferable skills through a market research "pitch".

Language Centre - Mandarin video chatshow

In this teaching and assessment activity, students work in pairs to create a filmed interview in the style of a TV chat-show. This requires them to research, listen, speak and present ideas and arguments in Mandarin Chinese, based on current affairs subjects of their choosing. Over the five years of the project, students have stated that the activity improves both their language abilities and their transferrable skills.

14 February 2019

Social Policy - Research Diary

The Department of Social Policy, along with guidance from TLC, has developed a research diary for our second year research methods students. The diary includes: guided questions related to the research project each week; a detailed timeline for project completion; and space to write down questions as they arise.

13 February 2019

LSE LIFE - Quant4Qual

Quant4Qual brings together students from across departments in a space that has a (1) facilitatory teaching style (2) peer-to-peer learning (3) grounded-learning in case-study analysis. The aim of the project is to establish an entry point for students to gain confidence working with empirical research methods in the social science.

12 February 2019  

US Centre - Research Assistantships: inviting students into the scholarly community

The US Centre’s Undergraduate Research Assistantship is an opportunity for students to involve themselves in internationally-oriented scholarship on America’s changing role in the world. Collaborating over the course of a year, students are paired with academics who require assistance in processing new data, gathering archival resources, writing-up a blog article, or conducting library searches.

8 February 2019

There are two former types of teaching case studies at the LSE. They are:

LSE Learning technology case studies  and

Lse academic development case studies (below) , teaching and learning case studies 2017-18.

Employing case studies on Master's courses in LSE Finance

Prof. Daniel Ferreira discusses the long-term use of the case study method in the Department of Finance, and its more recent introduction to undergraduate teaching.

9 November 2018

Researching London

Dr Ioanna Gouseti illustrates how vital experiential learning and research in London is to her 2nd year BSc students on 'Researching London: Methods for Social Research (SO211).

15 March 2018

The MPA Online Pre-Arrival Course

Dr Babken Babajanian explains the aid to student integration provided by the IPA since 2016 by its online pre-arrival course for the Masters of Public Administration  .

14 December 2017

Gender Studies student research conference

Dr Jacob Breslow and his students describe why their conference was a challenging yet rewarding learning and assessment experience.

19 October 2017

Developing real-world experience

Dr James Abdey explains the benefits to students of 'real-world' learning on ST327 Market Research: An Integrated Approach.

22 September 2017

Building a research community: involving academics, PhD students and MSc students in Conflict Research Group seminars

Dr Denisa Kostovicova details the CRG lunchtime research seminars, organised during term times since 2011.

19 September 2017

Video production for  En un lugar de Loñdres

Lourdes Hernández-Martín, project designer and course coordinator, LN122, explains her students' project to research the lives and language of 300,000+ members of London’s Spanish-speaking communities.

4 September 2017

Designing and presenting posters

Dr Jennifer Jackson-Preece details the use of student research and poster creation in her course on Ethnic Diversity and International Society (EU457) in this case study.

10 August 2017

Accounting case-based groupwork

Dr Tommaso Palermo used a case-based approach to groupwork with his second year undergraduate class. 

14 July 2017

Graduate Teaching Assistant Away Day 

Alex Marcoci and Diana Popescu discuss how they organised a shared Away Day for graduate teaching assistants for the Departments of Philosophy, Logic & Scientific Method and Government.

26 June 2017

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Case Studies in IPE

The development and implementation of case studies are central to IPE, designed to prepare future professionals in the art and science of collaborative practice. IPE case studies differ from other types of case studies that are used in professional education for various purposes, such as testing one’s knowledge of particular human conditions related to specific professions. In the field of speech, language and hearing sciences, the focus of professional preparation includes nine core areas, referred to as the “Big Nine” required for ASHA certification for speech-language pathologists. For details on the nine areas of study, see ASHA 2020 SLP Certification Standard IV-C .

Case studies developed for IPE center on the integration of interprofessional competencies within each student’s professional development, rather than specific content knowledge in their disciplines. Over the last decade, research and development in IPE and IPP continue to inform the spectrum of health, education and human services professions. The emergence of interprofessionalism as a unique and unifying set of knowledge and skills across disciplines provides a basis for the structure and implementation of case studies that are designed for the purpose of advancing interprofessional competencies within and across disciplines. Interprofessional resources in several disciplines identify four parameters to consider in the design, discussion, competency assessment and sample bank of IPE case studies including the following:

• Design and development of IPE case studies
• Discussion questions for IPE cases
• IPE competency development assessment
• Sample bank of IPE case studies

Each of the above parameters of IPE case studies are highlighted below, with application to speech, language and hearing sciences.

Design and Develop IPE Case Studies

The design of case studies to provide discussion experiences for IPE events requires attention to outcomes. Faculty determine the goals of the discussion for students, and build case studies accordingly. In SLHS, a starting point to frame case studies is to select one or more of the nine areas of study in speech-language pathology or audiology. The next consideration are the IPEC competencies in broad areas defined and described in detail in the IPEC Core Competencies for Collaborative Practice, 2016 Updates . Guidelines for developing IPE Case studies structured with an eye to student outcomes are further discussed in ASHA’s eBook on IPE and IPP in CSD , specifically in Chapter 2.

IPE Competency Assessment

Mastery of IPE skills require continued practice. In SLHS, we have used the IPEC Competency Self-Assessment Tool, available from the National Center for Interprofessional Practice and Education for students to gauge their own development of IPE competencies. To date, we have implemented the IPEC Competency Self-Assessment at the beginning and end of each IPE event so that students may reference their strengths and areas for further development related to communication, teamwork, understanding of diverse professions, family partnerships, and more. Research to advance and validate IPE competency assessment is available from the Interprofessionalism Assessment Collaborative .

Discussion Questions for IPE Cases

In order to guide the discussion so that students build skills for collaborative practice, reflection questions for case studies need to lead toward identifying improved coordination and outcomes for the families and individuals at the center of the professional team. For example, three reflections to guide discussions are: (See ASHA’s eBook on IPE and IPP in CSD , Chapter 1).

• Identify key opportunities to improve care in the specific case;
• Consider factors of quality, outcome, or cost; and
• Identify strategies to improve for the family, individuals, team and institution.

Additionally, considerations of cultural and linguistic diversity provide a lens for students to apply.

Sample Bank of IPE Case Studies

Case studies are a main component of IPE events in which students and pre-professionals collaborate with each other to provide the highest quality client care. There are a variety of disorders represented within IPE case study models which focus on ASHA’s Big Nine. Two case studies developed by SLHS, based on ASHA guidelines, are provided for here downloading and adaptation:

• Young Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Adolescent in Transition

In each of the above case studies, multiple focus areas were addressed including family cultural and linguistic diversity, bilingual language learning, Autism Spectrum Disorder, hearing needs, school inclusion. Additional resources for finding and developing IPE case studies are available in Chapter 1 of ASHA’s eBook on IPE and IPP in CSD .

For PDF files, you'll need Adobe Acrobat 5.0 or above to view it. If you need Adobe Acrobat Reader it's available free from Adobe .

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The List of Case Study Topics On Various Academic Subjects

Updated 18 Jun 2024

Although the majority of academic definitions of case study talk about some process or research work related to the development of a particular person, group of people, or events over a period of time, types of case studies also involve specific analysis to identify problems and find the outcomes. Therefore, the majority of case study topics already include some challenge or an assumption that requires additional research.

The case study usually includes a short description of a problem or an idea that must be explored with the data that should be helpful to let you explore and find the best solutions. For example, turning to a professional case study writing service , you will see that the case studies for nursing students will always differ from those that are used by engineering students. Keeping all these facts and related challenges in mind, we came up with a list of case study topics divided by category.

Case Study Ideas

Coming up with good and reliable case study ideas is essential for college students regardless of their course, existing skills, and academic objectives. Since case study writing explores a plethora of different research methodologies, choosing your topic correctly will help you to avoid such scenarios when your ideas become scattered all over your paper. Have a look at our list of case study ideas based on the subject and use them as a starting point for your future case study assignments. Need help with homework? Hire a professional essay writer .

Case Study Ideas For Psychology

The field of Psychology is quite challenging, which is why it is vital to choose your topic accordingly regardless if you already know the basics or want to overcome writer's block. Here are some interesting ideas to consider based on what is currently popular in various American universities:

• Military operations and the PTSD recovery process.
• The most common misconceptions about children with Autism.
• The workplace leadership and the complex of Emperor.
• The perception of danger in different cultures.
• The origins of bipolar disorder through the prism of domestic violence.
• Covid-19 and related anxiety cases among college students.
• The dangers of advertisements on children's TV networks.
• The negative influence of Instagram and distorted body image.
• Mental recovery of child abuse victims.
• Asthenic syndrome among teenage children.

Case Study Topics In Education

As you are dealing with Education, you should start by exploring the latest changes as the technology is constantly advancing. Compare old and new study methods used in schools or American universities to get the basic idea of competitive case study topics. 

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Here are some of them to explore:

• The challenges of remote education in rural locations in the USA.
• The teaching methods of Montessori schools.
• How to motivate children with learning disabilities?
• Pros and Cons of AI-based systems in education.
• The degree of freedom in Scandinavian schools.
• The role of self-motivation in European middle schools.
• Is Summer Camp education worth it?
• The consequences of improper examination methods.;
• The educative methodologies commonly used by male teachers.
• The changes that have taken place in education during the Covid-19 period.

Information Technology

The students majoring in Data Science or Information Technology sciences also have to face case study writing, which is usually based on various data analysis methods or the impact that technology has in certain fields of life. Still, you can always explore a little bit further and choose different topics for case studies like the ones below:

• Does technology advancement has an end?
• The limitations of the Python programming language.
• The differences between modern programming methods and the "old-school" approaches.
• The analysis of ethical hackers.
• Should one learn to become a hacker to prevent the majority of cyberattacks?
• Is user simplicity always good: WordPress case study?
• The challenges of software development in modern times.
• The safety of data analysis for medical purposes.
• The use of drones in police operations.
• Semantic methods in debugging.

Environmental Science

It is only natural to examine various case studies as you are learning all the complex environmental science aspects. Since the majority of tasks in this field will include either reflective writing or cause-and-effect essays, the use of case study writing cannot be underestimated. We're the  best law essay writing service  that you can trust: we get A grades from our customers.

Here are some ideas to use as the starting points:

• The mobile vessel pump systems that reduce ocean pollution.
• Is saving endangered species possible in our times?
• The cons and pros of ecological tourism.
• The use of politics in the Global Warming campaigns.
• The Earthquake prevention systems in the United States.
• The clarity of Carbon Dioxide Emission reports.
• The reasons why the Kyoto Protocol has double standards.
• The correct method of planting trees in an urban environment.
• How can college students help promote environmental protection.
• The use of Green Technologies during pandemic times.

Marketing Case Study Ideas

As a rule, marketing specialists always have enough to deal with, yet choosing a successful case study topic is not always easy! Do your best to narrow your ideas down to meet the main argument of your thesis statement and the educational objectives. You can browse through a wide range of subjects, including:

• The differences between female and male target marketing methods.
• The unique strategies and popularity of Apple Inc.
• Brand development methods: the most common mistakes.
• German Automotive Industry in the American market.
• Online (digital) versus physical marketing.
• The factors that create customer loyalty in the field of beverages.
• The negativity commonly associated with McDonald's.
• The controversy between Samsung and Apple.
• Is marketing to children morally acceptable?
• The future of marketing methods in the post-Covid-19 world.

Management Case Study Topics

Management is always complex because it involves a plethora of different subjects that must be combined and analyzed. The role of case studies here is vital because it is the best way to learn both old and new methods of management. Consider this list of case study topics on Management:

• Corporate planning and strategic management by Nike Corporation.
• The activity-based costs systems in the Asian markets.
• Is child entrepreneurship taking away the aspect of childhood?
• Should financial management be taught at schools?
• Human Resources Management bias and ethnicity aspects.
• The challenges of global management in modern times.
• The management and social media.
• Does immediate innovation has a place in marketing?
• Sustainable development and globalization.
• Civil rights and the responsibilities of corporate management specialists.

Applied Physics

As you may think that Applied Physics is all about theory or lab experiments, you are quite far from the truth because it also involves case study writing to determine the engineering mistakes or provide college professors with a piece of evidence that you understand the subject correctly.

• Condensed Matter and Mechanical Engineering studies.
• The most common misconceptions about Nanoscience.
• The Green Energy systems in the domestic environment.
• Why the study of Microfluidics is often considered dangerous?
• Quantum Information Science and Data Transfer methods.
• The benefits of Astrophysics lessons for the school children.
• The application of synchrotron radiation and relevant dangers.
• The engineering mindset specifics in Applied Physics.
• Radiation therapy and related mental aspects.
• The role of female scientists in Applied Physics.

SMM Case Study Topics

It is hard to imagine our lives without social media these days. It is only natural that SMM or Social Media Marketing case study topics are becoming even more popular.

Here are some of them you must definitely check:

• The use of children in SMM strategies.
• The challenges of influencers on social media.
• Why the majority of SMM trends are dangerous?
• The reasons why TikTok became popular.
• The importance of impromptu dancing on social media.
• Is SMM Marketing the next best thing for modern sales?
• Online marketing dangers.
• The differences between globalization and mass trend following.
• Social media dangers for children.
• The age gap differences in social media groups.

MBA Case Study Topic Ideas

MBA studies still remain one of the most popular subjects for those who want to start their personal business or promote something innovative. Once you have your MBA degree, you can get employed at some of the world's best companies. Still, as you only study, it is crucial to do all these writing tasks, including reflective journals and case study papers. Have no fear as we have some MBA case study ideas for you:

• Operations management styles at Intel Inc.
• Why the majority of human resource management methods used are outdated today.
• The specifics of marketing research in Japan.
• Customer relationship management and religion.
• Strategic Thinking VS Leadership training.
• MBA marketing specifics.
• The attitude and professional success: Bill Gates personality.
• Steve Jobs' marketing style.
• Financial responsibility of CEOs in the United States.
• The IT marketing through the prism of staff training in marketing.

Human Rights Case Studies

Even though we all have heard about human rights and related challenges these days, it is often uneasy to choose the right case study topic. If you are unsure what to choose, consider these examples of case study topics below:

• The challenges of the Palestinian community.
• Misconceptions about the Black Lives Matter Movement.
• Should children be allowed to vote and participate in politics.
• The gender injustice in the scientific community of American Universities.
• The abuse of female personnel workforce.
• The Anti-Discrimination Act controversies.
• The human rights controversies in the United States versus cases in Canada.
• How can minor children stand for their basic human rights?
• The moral aspect of freedom of speech.
• The human rights activists and their moral principles: South Africa.

Nursing Case Study Subjects

• The privacy of the nurse and patient communications.
• The importance of ER nursing stress reduction methods.
• Should nurses be taught self-defense tactics?
• The presence of ethnic bias in the nursing community.
• The emotional bonds established by the nurses in a team.
• How does team solidarity affect nursing responsibilities?
• The healthcare system in Norway: Bergen hospitals case study analysis.
• Should nurses be granted additional payments for the emotional turbulence that they endure?
• Patients with Alzheimer’s and the modern nursing methods.
• How can nurses help children to communicate more efficiently?

Business Case Study Topics

Regardless of what business field you may encounter for your college studies in the United States, the chances are high that you will need some inspiration for your next case study assignment. Consider taking a look at these topic ideas:

• The quality production differences between Gibson and Fender.
• The link between production quality and strategic thinking implemented by the CEOs.
• The image of the modern business individual today.
• Pricing optimization at Apple Inc.
• The reasons why start-ups became so popular in 2022.
• Market expansion in the Asian markets.
• Industry Landscape in Australia for investment purposes.
• Profitability and moral limitations in business in China.
• Personnel management issues at Amazon business outlets.
• The problems of consumerism in the United States.

Of course, these are only the starting points or the basic ideas that you can use as you think about how to choose a good case study topic for your next project! When in doubt, always consult your academic advisor or hire a professional case study writer to pick the best subject and methodology!

How To Choose Good Case Study Topics?

Starting with your case study topic hunting, follow these simple rules:

• Choose something that inspires you.
• Narrow things down to reflect your main idea the best way possible.
• Explore similar research ideas on the topic.
• Identify the problem(s) and opinions related to your chosen subject.
• Choose relevant methodology that will make it possible to research this or that case study topic.
• Find alternate wording for your case study assignment.
• Brainstorm available case study topics for college students.

Remember that if you are not sure about something, always ask your college advisor and check your grading rubric twice to ensure that you are on the right track!

Analysis Comes First

It must be reminded again that every assignment that you approach must include a preliminary analysis of the topic because you must be aware of various research aspects related to your topic. Take your time to consider different wording patterns and always narrow things down if possible to let your case study writing reflect your thesis and the main ideas. Always provide good evidence and analyze all the available information that you have in the case study instructions. It will help you to provide enough evidence of your research based upon a specific case study. Therefore, brainstorm our case study topics and let your education struggles become easier with our help! And remember that you can always ask us to write my case study!

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Written by David Kidwell

David is one of those experienced content creators from the United Kingdom who has a high interest in social issues, culture, and entrepreneurship. He always says that reading, blogging, and staying aware of what happens in the world is what makes a person responsible. He likes to learn and share what he knows by making things inspiring and creative enough even for those students who dislike reading.

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The Case for College in the Era of Online Learning

• Robert Walker

In-person education provides valuable experiences, opportunities, and skills that can’t be replicated online.

Does pursuing a college education still make sense in the age of online learning and AI — when we have access to information for free via the internet? The problem with this question is that it frames college as an information gatekeeper, misunderstanding much of its value. For many, higher education institutions offer more than that: a transformative journey where students can network and develop transferable soft skills that require teamwork and repetition. You can maximize your college experience by leaning into these opportunities while simultaneously staying up to date with the latest technological trends. By being agile, networking vigorously, cultivating problem-solving skills, and seeking learning opportunities in the real world while in school, you can prepare yourself for a successful career.

Today, we have access to more information than ever before. YouTube and TikTok can provide us with in-depth learning opportunities for free — from professional development tips to AI tutorials . In more recent years, large language models like ChatGPT and Gemini have shown they can answer almost any question that comes to mind with an increasing level of accuracy .

• RW Robert Walker is the director of high school admissions at University of Advancing Technology. Walker has over 12 years of in-depth experience in recruitment and technology, has a genuine passion helping others achieve their educations dream,s and holds advanced degrees in technology leadership and cyber security.  

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Andrew Karolyi and John Tobin-de la Puente

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In June, the Colombian subsidiary of Spanish banking group BBVA announced that it was issuing what it described as the financial sector’s “first biodiversity bond”, in order to finance habitat conservation and restoration projects in the South American country. 

The $50mn initiative — backed by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the private sector-focused arm of the World Bank, as structurer and investor — marks a turnaround for a nation recovering from half a century of violence and guerrilla activity. It also places Colombia among a select group of pioneers, including the Seychelles and Belize, that are using the financial markets to support the conservation of nature.

While the green bonds market has seen explosive growth in the past decade, the capital it has raised has overwhelmingly been invested in climate mitigation, alternative energy, and green transportation projects. Minimal amounts go to biodiversity conservation and habitat restoration projects. 

In financing nature, explicitly and directly, this Colombian bond breaks new ground, with metrics linked to objectives to benefit the environment. Invest ors will be repaid through a mix of funding sources including a carbon tax, the government budget and donors .

Test yourself

This is the sixth in a series of monthly business school-style teaching case studies devoted to responsible-business dilemmas faced by organisations. Read the piece and FT articles suggested at the end (and linked to within the piece) before considering the questions raised. 

About the authors: Andrew Karolyi is professor and dean, John Tobin-de la Puente is professor of practice and co-director of the Initiative on Responsible Finance, both at the Cornell SC Johnson College of Business.

The series forms part of a wide-ranging collection of FT ‘instant teaching case studies ’ that explore business challenges.

The question for those concerned about the destruction of the world’s natural habitats is whether this pioneering structured bond will be effective, and whether it could help to inspire a broader range of similar instruments aimed at countering loss of biodiversity around the world. 

Meanwhile, the question for investors is whether the vehicle is sufficiently attractive and robust to attract a new and growing class of funders that may share an interest in environmental issues but also seek competitive returns.

Located at the northern end of the Andes, Colombia straddles the Equator, the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean, and the Amazon basin. It has the second-highest number of species on the planet after Brazil, and the highest species diversity when measured per square kilometre, according to the World Wildlife Fund . Colombia is home to more than 1,900 species of birds — on a par with Brazil and Peru.

Colombia will be on the frontline of biodiversity losses

But global warming threatens to cause dramatic harm to this biodiversity . Colombia will be on the frontline of these losses because it will be disproportionately affected by climate change compared to countries with fewer species that are more widespread.

Now, though, it could also be in the vanguard of new financial models to reverse the trend.

In 2016, a historic peace agreement between the government and leftist guerrilla group the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Farc) marked the end of five decades of armed conflict. Despite continuing violence, the peace process has greatly improved the lives of citizens. However, it has also increased pressure on natural ecosystems. The political violence had meant large areas were shielded from illegal deforestation and degradation of the habitat.

Five years after the peace deal, Colombia became the first Latin American country to issue a green bond in its domestic market : a 10-year $200mn offering aiming to finance a variety of projects intended to benefit the environment — including water management, sustainable transport, biodiversity protection, and renewable energy. High investor demand meant the final amount had been increased by half again.

Finance minister José Manuel Restrepo described the structured bond as an “important step” in finding new ways to finance investment in environmental projects: it would help develop a domestic green bond market and attract a wider range of investors. His ministry identified another $500mn in eligible projects that could be financed through green bonds, including a $50mn Colombian “blue bond” — financing focused on marine habitats and ocean-based projects that generate environmental co-benefits. This was successfully placed in 2023 with the help of BBVA and the IFC as structurer.

Now, the announcement of BBVA Colombia’s biodiversity bond marks another step forward. It focuses on reforestation, regeneration of natural forests on degraded land, mangrove conservation, and wildlife habitat protection.

In the case of green bonds, only a minuscule share of the money raised is spent on nature conservation, in part because few such projects generate cash flows from which to repay investors. Another reason is that it is harder to measure how effectively deployed resources dedicated to conservation — such as for monitoring species population growth — are, or to track activities that help to reach certain conservation target goals over time, such as for restoring degraded ecosystems.  

Using private, financial return-seeking capital to finance the sustainable management and conservation of natural resources is viewed by many experts as the most realistic solution to the twin crises of biodiversity loss and climate change — given the magnitude of investment needed. 

Yet there is growing political pushback against environmental and social initiatives, most notably in the US. 

Regulators and consumer groups have also launched legal actions to challenge green objectives. Large corporations, including Unilever, Bank of America and Shell, have in the past year dropped or missed goals to cut carbon emissions. And there has been disillusion with the ability of sustainability-linked bonds to meet their objectives. 

By association, that raises fresh questions about continued progress on biodiversity.

In biodiversity finance, doing deals is inherently more difficult

In tackling the climate crisis, the trajectory seems clear: the set of solutions needed is more or less agreed, and a good part of it makes economic sense. But, in biodiversity finance, doing deals is inherently more difficult.

It is more complex to structure transactions that generate proceeds to protect wildlife, restore ecosystems and fund other activities that may not generate cash flows, all while ensuring investors are repaid. Early successes — such as Belize’s blue bond are encouraging — but the potential for real scale is still unclear.

Questions for discussion

How companies are starting to back away from green targets (ft.com)

Green bond issuance surges as investors hunt for yield (ft.com)

Sustainability-linked bonds falter amid credibility concerns (ft.com)

Consider these questions:

1. How critical is the role of the IFC as structurer of the BBVA Colombia biodiversity bond deal in validating its legitimacy and providing investors with assurance? How important is it that IFC is also a co-investor in the biodiversity bond issuance?  

2. What are the pros and cons of the fact that the $50mn BBVA Colombia biodiversity bond deal has been launched following Colombia’s successful placement three years earlier of its sovereign green bond, and following its newly announced “green taxonomy”?  

3. What does the Colombian experience say about the likelihood of rapid change in how countries manage their biodiversity and climate impacts? Does Colombia demonstrate that such change is possible, or is its experience unique and unlikely to represent a model of rapid action for other countries?

4. Can biodiversity bonds meaningfully help to address biodiversity loss? And is this transaction the start of a trend? If not, why would BBVA Colombia have executed this transaction? Is it a gesture of goodwill and a recognition of its own corporate responsibility, or a means to greenwash some of its other less appealing investments?

5. Considering the economic and social context following the peace agreement between Colombia and the Farc forces, how might the shift from conflict to peace affect the country’s ability to balance economic development with environmental conservation?   

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ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies Sample Question Paper 2024-25: Download Free PDF With Marking Scheme

 icse class 10 commercial studies sample question paper: the council for the indian school certificate examinations (cisce) has released the icse class 10 model question papers for 2025 board examinations. download commercial studies sample paper from the direct link. .

 ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies Sample Question Paper: The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) has released the latest specimen question papers for the students of ICSE Class 10. These are an essential resource for students who will be appearing in the 2025 Board examinations. In this article we have given the sample question paper of ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies for students to download from the direct link. 

The CISCE conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE –Class X); The Indian School Certificate (ISC – ClassXII), and the Certificate of Vocational Education (CVE – Year 12).

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ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies Sample Question Paper 2024-25

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Tips to Prepare for ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies Examination

1. Commercial studies is a scoring subject. With proper effort, students can obtain good marks in this subject. 

2.Students should go through the syllabus first and foremost to know what they have to study. Refer to the latest syllabus only. 

3.Students should construct a realistic time table which they can follow without doubt. The time table should be based on their strengths and weaknesses. 

4.Students should complete studying from the ICSE Class 10 Commercial Studies textbook. The textbook explains the concepts in an easy manner and has various exercises that students can solve. 

5. Practice writing answers as much as you can. This will help to achieve good writing speed. Along with this, students should practice the previous year question papers to understand the types and difficulty level of questions for the examination. 

Study hard with the help of these tips and test series resources. 

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• Published: 01 August 2024

Gastroesophageal reflux disease increases the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study

• Quan Yuan 1   na1 ,
• Zixiong Shen 1   na1 ,
• Jiujiang Zhang 2 ,
• Qing Liu 1 ,
• Huimin Whang 3 &
• Yang Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8523-5332 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  17796 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

151 Accesses

Metrics details

• Gastroenterology
• Medical research
• Rheumatology
• Risk factors

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common autoimmune disease, and some observational studies have indicated an association between Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) and RA. However, the causal relationship between the two remains uncertain. We used Mendelian randomization (MR) to assess the causal relationship between GERD and RA. Two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis was performed using pooled data from large-scale genome-wide association studies. In addition, we performed multivariate MR analyses to exclude confounding factors between GERD and RA, including smoking quantity, drinking frequency, BMI, depression, and education attainment. The MR results for GERD on RA suggested a causal effect of the genetic susceptibility of GERD on RA (discovery dataset, IVW, odds ratio [OR] = 1.41, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22–1.63, p  = 2.81 × 10 −6 ; validation dataset, IVW, OR = 1.38, 95% CI 1.23–1.55, P  = 1.76 × 10 −8 ). Multivariate MR analysis also supports this result. But the results of the reverse MR analysis did not reveal compelling evidence that RA can increase the risk of developing GERD. Our bidirectional Two-Sample Mendelian randomization analysis and multivariate MR analysis provide support for the causal effect of GERD on RA. This discovery could offer new insights for the prevention and treatment of RA.

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Relationship between Sjogren's syndrome and gastroesophageal reflux: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

Introduction.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a prevalent disorder of the digestive system. Stomach acid and gastric contents flowing back into the esophagus can lead to damage to the esophageal mucosa, resulting in symptoms including but not limited to reflux, heartburn, abdominal pain, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing 1 .

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammation and an autoimmune disease that primarily affects the synovial membranes of joints. It causes pain and swelling in the little limb joints, ultimately resulting in bone erosion and joint deformity. Some RA patients may also experience various organ damage, including the skin, eyes, cardiovascular system, and kidneys. The digestive system can also be directly affected, and gastrointestinal issues in RA patients are often attributed to long-term use of NSAIDs and corticosteroid medications 2 .At the same time, Gastrointestinal symptoms are also one of the major comorbidities contributing to decreased quality of life and increased mortality risk among RA patients 3 .

A study conducted in Japan revealed a significantly elevated risk of GERD among RA patients in comparison to the general population (24.6% vs 11.5%, p  < 0.001) 4 . A nested case–control study from Taiwan suggested that GERD is an independent risk factor for the occurrence of RA. The risk of developing RA was 2.84 times higher in individuals with GERD compared to the control group (95% CI 2.09–3.85). They performed sensitivity analysis to assess potential bias and after data adjustments, the hazard ratio (HR) remained close to the initial findings at 2.81 (95% CI 2.06–3.83) 5 . A study from South Korea indicated that the adjusted HR for the risk of GERD patients developing RA was 1.49 times higher than the control group (95% CI = 1.37–1.62, P  < 0.001). Additionally, the risk of RA patients developing GERD was 1.46 times higher than that of the control group (95% CI = 1.38–1.55, P  < 0.001) 6 . The results of these observational studies suggest a relationship, but not causation, between GERD and RA.

Due to the inherent limitations of observational studies, which cannot fully control for confounding factors and are susceptible to reverse causality and sample size constraints, causal inferences are prone to bias, thus reducing our comprehension of the causal relationship between GERD and RA. Mendelian randomization (MR) is an approach that utilizes genetic variation to assess the presence of a consistent causal effect between an exposure factor and an outcome. Mendelian randomization is also referred to as "nature's randomized controlled trial." An individual's genotype is determined at conception, and genetic variants adhere to Mendel's Second Law, undergoing random allocation during meiosis. Therefore, individuals being naturally predisposed to carry or not carry certain genetic variants associated with a specific risk factor from birth. MR helps to avoid the influence of confounding factors in observational studies and addresses reverse causation, thereby minimizing bias to the greatest extent possible. Some MR studies have shown a causal link between factors such as smoking 7 , 8 , 9 , alcohol consumption 8 , 9 , depression 10 , 11 , and educational attainment 12 , 13 and GERD or RA. At the same time, some observational studies have also shown that there is a certain association between BMI and them 14 , 15 . Therefore, we used multivariate MR analysis to adjust for the effects of these factors on our analysis.

We collected publicly available data from large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and employed a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization approach to analyze and establish the potential bidirectional causal effect between GERD and RA. In addition, we further clarify the reliability of our conclusions by correcting factors such as smoking quantity, drinking frequency, BMI, depression, and education attainment. The results of multivariate adjustment were displayed by IVW and MR-Egger, and Cochrane’s Q value and MR-Egger regression intercept were used to evaluate heterogeneity and pleiotropy, respectively.

Materials and methods

Experimental design.

Bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization (TSMR) analysis must adhere to three essential assumptions: (1) Instrumental variables (IVs) should be highly correlated with the exposure factor; (2) IVs must be independent of confounding variables; (3) IVs cannot affect the outcome through pathways other than the exposure factor (Fig.  1 ).

MR analysis workflow and MR assumption. A concise experimental flowchart and the three assumptions that Mendelian randomization analysis needs to fulfill.

Data sources

Gwas data for exposure and outcome.

We utilized several GWAS datasets for conducting this study. The GERD data were sourced from IEU Open GWAS ( https://gwas.mrcieu.ac.uk/ ), encompassing a total of 602,604 individuals of European ancestry, with the identifier "ebi-a-GCST90000514" 16 . The RA discovery and validation datasets were derived from the GWAS Catalog 17 ( https://www.ebi.ac.uk/gwas ) and the FINNGEN database 18 ( https://www.finngen.fi/en ), respectively. The former dataset includes individuals of European, East Asian, African, South Asian, and Arab descent, and we specifically utilized the European data. These European data originated from Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Spain, comprising 22,350 cases of European descent and 74,823 European descent control cases. The latter dataset primarily comes from Finland and includes 12,555 cases of European descent and 240,862 European descent control cases (Table 1 ). All GWAS data used in this study have previously obtained ethical approval from previous research, eliminating the need for additional ethical clearance for the current study. The authors and references can be found in the supplementary tables for further consultation.

GWAS data for multivariable MR analysis

When analyzing the causal relationship between GERD and RA, we adjusted for the effect of potential confounders on outcomes. We further performed multivariate MR analysis on smoking quantity, drinking frequency, BMI, depression, and education attainment. The datasets of smoking quantity and drinking frequency are cigarettes per day (n = 784,353) and drinks per week (n = 2,965,643) which from the Sequencing Consortium of Alcohol and Nicotine use (GSCAN) project 19 . More information on the study can be found in https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/241912 . The dataset of BMI is from the Genetic Investigation of Anthropometric Traits (GIANT) consortium 20 . The consortium provides meta-analysis data for approximately 700,000 European populations ( https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30124842/ ). The depression dataset comes from FINNGEN database 18 , which includes 43,280 cases and 329,192 control cases ( https://www.finngen.fi/en ). The education attainment GWAS aggregate statistics were derived from the Social Science Genetic Association Consortium (SSGAC), which encompasses education attainment GWAS data, the largest sample size to date, including a total of 71 discovery cohorts including 1,131,881 participants of European ancestry, measuring approximately 10 million SNP loci 21 .

IVs selection

We used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as IVs. To avoid linkage disequilibrium, we established that SNPs associated with the exposure factor must meet the criteria of r 2  < 0.001, aggregation window = 10,000 kb, significance threshold of P  < 5.0 × 10 −8 . Subsequently, we extracted SNPs significantly associated with the exposure factor from the outcome data and documented the corresponding allele variants in the supplementary materials. This documentation also includes p -values, standard errors, and effect sizes (beta). The F-statistic for each individual SNP was determined using \(F=\frac{{beta}^{2}}{{se}^{2}}\) to assess the statistical strength of each IV 22 . The overall F-statistic for SNPs was calculated using \(F=\frac{N-K-1}{K}\times \frac{{R}^{2}}{1-{R}^{2}}\) , \({R}^{2}\) represents the proportion of variance explained by each SNP, and its calculation formula is \({R}^{2}=2\times eaf\times (1-eaf)\times {beta}^{2}\) , where \(eaf\) is the effect allele frequency, \(N\) represents the sample size of the exposure data, beta denotes the effect of the SNP on the exposure, and \(K\) is the number of SNPs 23 , 24 . \(F>10\) indicates a stable association between the SNP and the phenotype, suggesting the absence of weak instrumental variable bias 25 . In addition, proxy SNPs were not utilized in this experiment.

Statistical analysis

We conducted a bidirectional TSMR analysis on the GERD and RA datasets. We aggregated and harmonized the data to ensure that the SNPs for both the exposure and outcome correspond to the same alleles. We conducted analysis using MR-Egger regression, inverse variance weighting (IVW), weighted median, and Mendelian randomization pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO). Simple mode and weighted mode were employed for supplementary result analysis. If all genetic variants meet the IVS assumptions, IVW is used to assess the consistency of the causal effect between exposure and outcome. Cochrane's Q is utilized for assessing heterogeneity. If the p  > 0.05, we opt for a fixed-effects model; otherwise, a random-effects model is applied. The difference between the intercept of the MR-Egger regression and 0 is employed for an initial evaluation of potential horizontal pleiotropy in IVs. If the p -value of its intercept is greater than 0.05, it suggests the absence of horizontal pleiotropy 26 . Sensitivity analysis was conducted using MR-PRESSO test. The MR-PRESSO NbDistribution was set at 3000, and the SignifThreshold = 0.05. MR-PRESSO can also reevaluate pleiotropy by excluding palindromic sequences 27 . If instrumental variables (IVs) show no horizontal pleiotropy, the IVW method is considered the most reliable 28 . In this case, IVW will serve as the primary approach to evaluate the causal effect between GERD and RA. The leave-one-out method is used to determine whether there are individual SNPs that significantly affect the estimation of the causal relationship. Given that there is a causal relationship between GERD and RA in univariate analysis, we further performed multivariate MR analysis to correct for the interference of confounding factors in their causal relationship.

All analyses were conducted using RStudio 4.2.1 ( https://www.r-project.org/ ). The R packages "TwoSampleMR”, "Mendelian randomization", "MVMR", and "MR-PRESSO" were used for MR analysis. Finally, we utilized a web-based tool ( https://shiny.cnsgenomics.com/mRnd/ ) to calculate the MR statistical power 29 . Statistical power is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis in a hypothesis test, meaning it reflects the ability to detect an actual effect. An appropriate level of statistical power (usually set at 80% or 0.80) ensures that the study is sensitive enough to detect actual effects, reducing the risk of committing a Type II error 30 .

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable since the study is based on summary-level data. In all original studies, ethical approval, and consent to participate had been obtained.

Univariable MR analysis

We conducted a MR analysis with GERD as the exposure and RA as the outcome. After screening 80 SNPs in GERD, and harmonizing with RA (discovery), a total of 80 SNPs were selected, including 14 palindrome sequences, 3 outliers (rs4713692, rs6722661, rs7942368) and 1 SNPs (rs3828917) strongly associated with the outcome (This SNP was associated with exposure with a P value of 2.27 × 10 −8 but an outcome P value of 6.87 × 10 −18 , violating the three major Mendelian assumptions of randomization, so we manually excluded it. For details, refer to Supplementary Materials 1–2). After harmonization with RA (validation), 78 SNPs were selected, including 3 palindrome sequences,1 outlier (rs4713692) and 1 SNPs (rs3828917) strongly associated with the outcome. (This SNP was associated with exposure with a P value of 2.27 × 10 −8 but an outcome P value of 6.19 × 10 –10 , so we also manually excluded it. For details, refer to Supplementary Materials 3–4). After removing these palindrome sequences and SNPs strongly associated with the outcome, we ended up with 62 and 73 SNPs as IVs for the discovery and validation sets, respectively. The F-statistic for all individual SNPs in both subsets were greater than 10. The total R 2 for the discovery set was 2.82%, with a total F-statistic of 282.43. For the validation set, the total R 2 was 3.29%, with a total F-statistic of 280.41. The outlier test results from MR-PRESSO indicate that there are 4 outliers in the discovery set (rs4713692, rs6722661, rs7942368, rs3828917) and 2 outliers in the validation set (rs3828917, rs4713692). These outliers have already been included in the previous set of palindrome sequences and SNPs strongly associated with the outcome, and therefore have been excluded accordingly. All outliers can be found in Supplementary Table 9 .

The MR-Egger results indicate that the intercept for the discovery set is 0.020 with p  = 0.14, while for the validation set, the intercept is − 0.011 with p  = 0.34. This result suggests the absence of horizontal pleiotropy in the instrumental variables. Therefore, we will consider IVW as the primary method for assessing the causal relationship. The results from IVW suggest a causal effect of the genetic susceptibility of GERD on RA (discovery, OR = 1.41, 95%CI 1.22–1.63, p  = 2.81 × 10 −6 ; validation, OR = 1.38, 95%CI 1.23–1.55, P  = 1.76 × 10 −8 ). The weighted median also supports this causal relationship (discovery, OR = 1.39,95%CI 1.15–1.67, p  = 7.07 × 10 −4 ; Validation, OR = 1.41, 95%CI 1.22–1.64, P = 4.43 × 10 −6 ) (Fig.  2 ). We used the web-based tools mRnd to calculate the statistical power of the MR analysis of GERD to RA (discovery) and RA (validation) to be 100% respectively (Supplementary Table 10 ).

Casual estimate and sensitivity analysis of univariate MR analysis. Causal estimate and sensitivity analysis of MR analysis. Number of SNPs; OR odds ratio; GERD, Gastroesophageal reflux disease; RA, rheumatoid arthritis.

Next, we conducted a reverse MR analysis with RA as the exposure and GERD as the outcome. Using the previously applied screening criteria, we identified 76 SNPs in RA (discovery), and after harmonizing with GERD, we selected 28 SNPs, including 1 palindrome sequence (For details, refer to Supplementary Materials 5–6). In RA (validation), 24 SNPs were identified, and after harmonization with GERD, 8 SNPs were selected, with no palindrome sequences found (For details, refer to Supplementary Materials 7–8). MR-PRESSO's outlier test results revealed 2 outliers in the discovery set (rs2561477, rs4239702) and 2 outliers in the validation set (rs11758148, rs6065926). After removing palindrome sequences and outliers, we proceeded with the subsequent MR analysis. Ultimately, we obtained 25 and 6 SNPs as IVs for the discovery and validation sets, respectively. The F -statistic for all individual SNPs in both subsets were greater than 10. The R 2 for the discovery set was 15.4%, with a total F-statistic of 710.01. For the validation set, the R 2 was 4.90%, with a total F-statistic of 2187.70.

The results of the reverse analysis indicate a causal relationship between RA (discovery) and an increased risk of developing GERD (IVW, OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.00–1.06, P  = 0.012). However, in the validation set, RA does not show a causal relationship with GERD (IVW, OR = 1.02, 95% CI 0.98–1.06, P  = 0.235). The results from MR-Egger, weighted median, and MR-PRESSO in both the discovery and validation sets also support their respective conclusions.

Sensitivity analysis

We conducted heterogeneity analysis using Cochran's Q test for IVs. In the forward MR analysis, we observed heterogeneity in the IVs of the discovery set. Therefore, we employed a random-effects IVW model to assess the causal relationship, and the Egger intercept showed no significant difference from zero. The leave-one-out analysis did not identify any single SNP significantly influencing the causal estimate (discovery, IVW Cochran’s Q = 85.57, p  = 0.021, MR-Egger Cochran’s Q = 82.52, p  = 0.029; validation, IVW Cochran’s Q = 87.04, p  = 0.109, MR-Egger Cochran’s Q = 85.92, p = 0.110). Similarly, in the reverse MR analysis, we found heterogeneity in the IVs of the discovery set, leading us to use the random-effects IVW model for the causal evaluation (discovery, IVW Cochran’s Q = 51.54, p  = 8.98 × 10 −4 , MR-Egger Cochran’s Q = 51.51, p  = 5.82 × 10 −4 ; validation, IVW Cochran’s Q = 6.86, p  = 0.231, MR-Egger Cochran’s Q = 6.37, p  = 0.173) (Table 2 ).The results from MR-PRESSO support a causal relationship between the genetic susceptibility to GERD and RA. However, the findings differ between the discovery and validation sets regarding whether RA can increase the risk of developing GERD. The scatter plots for both analyses are illustrated in Fig.  3 , 4 , and the funnel plot and leave-one-out plot can be found in the supplementary materials (supplementary Figures 1 – 4 ).

Scatterplot for three methods (GERD on RA). Scatter plots results of MR analysis of GERD as exposure. On the left is GERD on RA discovery, on the right is GERD on RA validation. GERD, Gastroesophageal reflux disease; RA, rheumatoid arthritis.

Scatterplot for three methods (RA on GERD). Scatter plots results of MR analysis of RA as exposure. On the left is RA discovery on GERD, on the right is RA validation on GERD.

3Multivariable MR estimates

For the causal effect of GERD on RA, we performed a multivariate MR analysis to correct for possible confounding factors brought about by smoking quantity, drinking frequency, BMI, depression, and education attainment on RA discovery and validation datasets. After adjusting for smoking quantity (IVW, OR = 1.32, 95%CI 1.01–1.72, P  = 0.044), drinking frequency (IVW, OR = 1.39, 95%CI:1.09–1.77, P = 0.008), BMI (IVW, OR = 1.22, 95%CI 1.04–1.42, P  = 0.013), depression (IVW, OR = 1.52, 95%CI 1.12–2.04, P  = 0.006), and education attainment (IVW, OR = 1.79, 95%CI 1.44–2.23, P  = 1.29 × 10 −7 ) in the discovery set, the genetic susceptibility to GERD is still causally related to RA. After we adjusted smoking quantity (IVW, OR = 1.26, 95%CI 1.03–1.55, P  = 0.022), drinking frequency (IVW, OR = 1.34, 95%CI 1.14–1.57, P  = 3.01 × 10 −4 ), BMI (IVW, OR = 1.27, 95%CI 1.12–1.43, P  = 1.37 × 10 −4 ), depression (IVW, OR = 1.36, 95%CI 1.12–1.65, P  = 2.14 × 10 −3 ), and education attainment (IVW, OR = 1.49, 95%CI 1.32–1.70, P  = 5.85 × 10 −10 ) on the validation set, the previous conclusions still hold. In sensitivity analyses, MR-Egger regression for multivariate MR analysis did not detect horizontal pleiotropy but there was some degree of heterogeneity, so we used the IVW random-effects method for analysis. Detailed results can be found in the Fig.  5 , Table 3 and supplementary Table 11 – 12 .

Casual estimate and sensitivity analysis of multivariate MR analysis. Causal estimate analysis of multivariate MR analysis. Number of SNPs; OR odds ratio; GERD, Gastroesophageal reflux disease; RA, rheumatoid arthritis.

In summary, our results suggest that genetic predisposition to GERD increases the risk of RA, while RA does not have a causal relationship on GERD. This conclusion is supported in different models, and the conclusion that GERD increases the risk of RA remains validated after adjusting for smoking quantity, drinking frequency, BMI, education attainment, and depression.

This study employed a bidirectional TSMR approach on publicly available GWAS data. We demonstrated a positive causal effect of GERD on RA in the European population using a discovery set. The validation set was subsequently used to confirm our findings. The results from the reverse MR analysis indicated a causal effect of RA on GERD was not observed.

Although the availability of new anti-rheumatic drugs has dramatically improved the prognosis and the mortality of RA patients has been declining over the past three decades, the prevalence of the disease has gradually increased 31 . RA is challenging to cure and typically requires lifelong treatment. The damage caused by the disease and the economic burden of treatment continue to be significant global challenges in managing RA 32 . The exact mechanisms underlying the onset of RA remain unclear. Research suggests that aside from genetic factors, environmental elements such as malnutrition, low educational attainment, smoking, occupational exposure to silica, periodontitis, and the microbiome could be associated with the development of RA 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 .

Smoking is one of the important factors leading to RA, which not only increases the body's oxidative stress response, but also promotes systemic inflammation and interferes with apoptosis 38 . One meta-analysis reported a 26% increased risk of RA even if the smoker was light (1–10 packs/year) compared with those who had never smoked (RR = 1.26, 95%CI 1.14–1.39) 39 . Low and moderate alcohol consumption has been shown to reduce the risk of RA 40 , 41 , and one meta-analysis has demonstrated a negative association between alcohol intake and the risk of ACPA-positive RA 42 . It has been reported that there may be a synergistic effect between alcohol and smoking in influencing the risk of developing RA, and that alcohol consumption may lead to a decreased correlation between smoking and the onset of RA 43 . Obesity is considered a risk factor for human health, including but not limited to RA. Results from one meta-analysis suggest that an increase in BMI may be associated with an increased risk of RA (RR = 1.23, 95%CI 1.09–1.39) 14 . Depression is one of the common comorbidities in patients with RA, and epidemiological studies have shown that depression is one of the risk factors for RA. In a study from Taiwan, the risk of RA was significantly higher in depressed people than in non-depressed people (HR = 1.65, 95% CI 1.41–1.77) 44 . Another study of patients in the UK found that the risk of RA increased by 38% in depressed people compared with non-depressed people after adjusting for age, sex, smoking, BMI, comorbidities, and antidepressant use (HR = 1.38, 95% CI 1.31–1.46) 45 . Previous MR studies have also shown that higher educational attainment has a protective effect on RA (OR = 0.37, 95% CI 0.31–0.44) 12 . After performing multivariate MR analyses and correcting for these confounders, we found that genetic susceptibility to GERD was still causally associated with RA.

However, explaining the causal effect of genetic susceptibility to GERD on RA can be challenging (Fig.  6 ). One of the hypotheses in the etiology of RA is the "mucosal origin," suggesting that the autoimmune response leading to the development of RA is triggered within the relevant lymphoid tissues in the mucosa of the lungs, oral cavity, and gastrointestinal tract 46 . Factors such as the absorption of toxic substances in the intestines, disruption of gastrointestinal anatomical structures, and alterations in the microbiota can contribute to the formation of synovitis 34 . Studies have indicated that RA-associated autoantibodies can be produced in the pulmonary mucosa and lymph nodes. Local enrichment of anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) has been detected in the sputum of early untreated RA patients 47 . Periodontitis and oral microbiota, with representatives like Porphyromonas gingivalis , can also contribute to the development of RA 48 , 49 . GERD, as a form of chronic esophageal damage, is increasingly being considered as a potential contributor to the development of RA, possibly even in its early stages. It's not just regarded as a comorbidity of RA or a complication during RA treatment involving corticosteroids or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Abnormal reflux of gastric fluid and contents can damage the esophageal mucosa. Displacement of intestinal bacteria or distal esophageal bacteria may occur, breaking through the mucosal barrier and potentially triggering an immune response. In normal conditions, the esophageal microbiota is primarily composed of Gram-positive bacteria. However, in GERD patients, there is a shift towards an increased presence of Gram-negative bacteria. This includes genera like Prevotella , Haemophilus , Neisseria , Campylobacter , and Clostridium 50 , 51 . With the increasing proportion of Gram-negative bacteria, there is also an elevation in lipopolysaccharide content. This can subsequently lead to an upregulation of gene expression through the Toll-like receptor 4 and NFκB pathways, resulting in an augmentation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression 52 . Recent germ-free experiments have substantiated how individual microbial communities’ impact specific immune cell populations, altering the balance between pro-inflammatory cells and regulatory T cells both at mucosal sites and within the bloodstream 53 . Following dysbiosis of the gut microbiota, segmented filamentous bacteria can activate Th17 cells within the lamina propria, leading to a reduced proportion of anti-inflammatory Tregs, exacerbating systemic inflammatory responses, fostering an autoimmune predisposition, and ultimately precipitating arthritis 54 , 55 , 56 . Research conducted by Jose U. Scher indicates a strong association between the presence of Prevotella copri in the gut and newly diagnosed, untreated RA 57 . This study also identifies the potential role of this bacterium in the pathogenesis of RA. Coincidentally, GERD patients also exhibit the presence of Prevotella copri in the distal esophagus. This bacterium in the distal esophagus may also contribute to the development of RA. A human model study focusing on conditions such as Whipple's disease, which aligns with the gut-joint axis hypothesis, has indicated that Tropheryma whipplei can trigger the occurrence of RA in susceptible individuals 58 . It has been reported that this disease not only affects the small intestine but can also involve the esophagus, pharynx, duodenum, colon, and other areas 59 . Furthermore, chronic mucosal inflammation appears to be a significant mechanism in the pathogenesis of RA. Reports suggest TLRs expressed in the esophageal mucosa mediate the interaction between the immune system and the microbiota, which could also be a mechanism driving chronic inflammatory responses 60 .

Possible mechanisms leading to RA. Figure illustrates some of the mechanisms underlying mucosal involvement in rheumatoid arthritis, as well as certain gut-joint axis mechanisms mentioned in the text.

In addition, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids taken during treatment in RA patients are one of the causes of gastrointestinal complications 61 . In addition, antirheumatic drugs can sometimes cause adverse gastrointestinal events 62 . As a result, the conclusion of some observational studies that there is a link between RA and GERD has been influenced. However, our findings using MR analysis suggest that there is no causal relationship between RA and GERD.

It should be emphasized that RA is a complex autoimmune disease characterized by the interaction of multiple causative factors in its pathogenesis. Therefore, there is a need for more comprehensive and detailed investigation into the mechanisms through which GERD may contribute to the development of RA.

In the reverse MR analysis, we observed that the results from the discovery set indicated an increased risk of GERD associated with RA, while the results from the validation set were entirely opposite. We speculate that this discrepancy might be due to a small overlap in samples between the RA (discovery) and GERD datasets, leading to such outcomes. Since there is no sample overlap between RA (validation) and GERD, such results would not be expected. Theoretically, there is also the possibility of false negatives due to the small size of the validation dataset, but we lean towards the first possibility.

This study still has some limitations. First, due to weak instrumental bias (F-statistic < 10), the causal effect of GERD and RA, which corrected by BMI and depression should be interpreted with caution. In addition, different databases may contribute to the presence of heterogeneity. However, the use of the IVW random-effects method and the absence of horizontal pleiotropy indicates that our results are unlikely to be interfered with by heterogeneity 62 . Secondly, our GWAS data are derived from European populations, which may limit the generalizability of the MR results when extrapolated to other populations. we did not perform a stratified analysis based on serum ACPA positivity and negativity or gender. Further research in the future could explore this aspect in more detail. Lastly, the credibility of IVs to a certain extent is influenced by the sample size of the GWAS. In the future, larger-scale GWAS data will be necessary to validate the conclusions.

In summary, our analysis supports a causal relationship between genetic susceptibility to GERD and an increased risk of RA. This finding is crucial for deepening our understanding of the pathogenesis of RA and may offer new insights for the prevention and treatment of RA. It also offers a new perspective on preventing the occurrence of GERD in patients with RA. However, based on the results of the reverse MR analysis using the existing dataset, compelling evidence was not found for RA increasing the risk of developing GERD.

Data availability

The data requirements mentioned in the article can be found in the article/Supplementary materials. For further details may directly contact the corresponding author through the provided contact information.

Abbreviations

• Gastroesophageal reflux disease
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Mendelian randomization

Genome-wide association study

Two-sample mendelian randomization

Instrumental variables

Randomized controlled trials

Single nucleotide polymorphisms

Inverse variance weighting

Mendelian randomization pleiotropy residual sum and outlier

Anti-citrullinated protein antibodies

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Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude for the contributions of all participants. We want to acknowledge the participants and investigators of the FinnGen study.

This research was funded by the Health Commission of Jilin province (2021JC013) and the Jilin Provincial Department of Education Project (JJKH20211163KJ).

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These authors contributed equally: Quan Yuan and Zixiong Shen.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Thoracic Surgery, Organ Transplantation Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China

Quan Yuan, Zixiong Shen, Qing Liu & Yang Li

Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China

Jiujiang Zhang

Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China

Huimin Whang

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Guarantor of the article: Yang Li; Specific author contributions: (I) Conception and design: Quan Yuan; (II) Collection and assembly of data: Quan Yuan, Zixiong Shen, Huimin Wang, Qing Liu; (III) Data analysis and interpretation: Quan Yuan, Zixiong Shen, Jiujiang Zhang; (IV) Manuscript writing: Quan Yuan; (V) Manuscript explanation: Quan Yuan; Zixiong Shen; (VI) Financial support: Yang Li.

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Yuan, Q., Shen, Z., Zhang, J. et al. Gastroesophageal reflux disease increases the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Sci Rep 14 , 17796 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-64966-w

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• Published: 29 July 2024

Gender differences in the relationship between medical students’ emotional intelligence and stress coping: a cross-sectional study

• Na Zhang 1 ,
• Xiaoyu Ren 1 ,
• Zhen Xu 2 &
• Kun Zhang 3  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  810 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Given the increasing stress levels among medical students due to the impact of COVID-19, it is crucial to effectively reduce their stress levels for their future development. To better understand medical students’ stress coping, this study investigated how their emotional intelligence is related to stress coping and whether this relationship is moderated by gender differences.

A cross-sectional study was conducted. A random sample of 744 medical students from Hebei Province, China, was investigated via an emotional intelligence scale and stress coping questionnaire from March–May 2023. The response rate was 93%. SPSS and Mplus statistical software were used for the data analysis.

The self-emotional appraisal of medical students had a significant negative effect on avoidant coping (β = -0.173, CI 95% = [-0.243, -0.099], p  < .001). However, the other dimensions of emotional intelligence (others’ emotional appraisal, use of emotion, and regulation of emotion) had a significant positive impact on the active coping of female medical students (β = 0.146, CI 95% = [0.082,0.214], p  < .001; β = 0.235, CI 95% = [0.167,0.304], p  < .001; β = 0.165, CI 95% = [0.084,0.247], p  < .001). In contrast to those of female medical students, other dimensions of emotional intelligence had a significant positive impact on the avoidant coping of male medical students (β = -0.161, CI 95% = [-0.284, -0.062]; p  < 0.01; β = 0.126, CI 95% = [0.043,0.246], p  < 0.001; β = 0.159, CI 95% = [0.054,0.277], p  < 0.05; β = -0.221, CI 95% = [-0.363, -0.129], p  < 0.001). Moreover, the use of emotion had a significant positive impact on the active coping of male medical students (β = 0.272, CI 95% = [0.182,0.382], p  < .001). Furthermore, gender differences had a moderating effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence dimensions and stress coping (β = 0.178; CI 95% = [0.068,0.292]; p  < 0.05). Others’ emotional appraisal has a greater impact on female students’ active coping. In addition, with increasing regulation of emotion ability, female medical students reduce avoidant coping (β = 0.169, CI 95% = [0.002,0.326]; p  < 0.05).

Conclusions

The current study revealed that gender is a significant moderator of the relationship between medical students’ emotional intelligence and stress coping. These findings may help medical colleges focus on gender differences when improving medical students’ ability to cope with stress.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

College students are faced with many internal and external stresses that mainly come from academic, personal, and interpersonal relationships. Since COVID-19, the stress level of college students has increased [ 1 ]. This is especially true for medical students, who are more likely to encounter COVID-19-infected individuals [ 2 ]. Stress is regarded as a life crisis that affects the development of college students at all stages. High stress levels among medical students may lead to psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, and irritability [ 3 , 4 ], which can cause serious harm to their physical and mental health [ 5 ]. Furthermore, it will have a certain degree of influence on the career planning of medical students [ 6 ]. Therefore, effectively reducing the stress level of medical students is highly important for their future development.

As a special group, medical students are also facing the pressure of changing from being college students to being qualified medical workers [ 7 ]. Thus, medical students face more pressure than students from other majors [ 8 ]. Stress coping involves the different ways people deal with stress. Many medical students try to eliminate or reduce the impact of stressors by using effective or ineffective styles to cope with stress [ 9 ]. As an intermediary mechanism of stress and health, stress coping has important protective effects on individuals’ physical and mental health. As a new force in the field of health care, medical students’ effective stress coping and maintenance of mental health have a crucial impact on their social development.

Previous research on stress often coincides with research on emotion, which is experienced both physically and mentally [ 10 ]. Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotions, to motivate one’s own emotions, and to manage one’s emotions in interpersonal relationships [ 11 ]. Emotional intelligence greatly affects individuals’ behavior and performance [ 12 ]. It helps students select the most appropriate stress coping style [ 13 ]. In previous studies, emotional intelligence was shown to buffer stress through active coping [ 14 , 15 ]. In other words, emotional intelligence minimizes the negative effects of stress and improves coping [ 16 ].

Gender has been shown to be an important factor that influences stress coping. Researchers have found that females tend to use behavioral coping more actively than males do [ 17 , 18 ]. However, some scholars believe that, based on the socialization hypothesis, females are more likely to use avoidant coping, while males are more likely to adopt active coping [ 19 , 20 ]. There is no consistent conclusion on the impact of gender on stress coping. These inconsistent findings highlight the need to consider gender differences when examining medical students’ stress coping.

Similarly, the study of emotional intelligence also emphasizes gender differences [ 21 ]. On the one hand, there are significant differences in the level of emotional intelligence between males and females [ 22 ]. On the other hand, gender has an important influence on the role of emotional intelligence [ 23 ]. Gender differences exist in both emotional intelligence and stress coping. However, to date, little research has been conducted on the potential role of gender as a moderator in the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress coping. As a moderator, the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress coping can still exist in the Chinese context, even in the absence of gender [ 15 , 24 ]. Therefore, whether there is a gender difference in the impact of emotional intelligence on stress coping among Chinese medical students is worth further exploration.

Therefore, this study explored the gender differences in stress coping in the field of health care and further explored the role of medical students’ gender as a moderator of emotional intelligence dimensions on stress coping. Thus, the influence mechanism of emotional intelligence on the stress coping of medical college students is clearer. At the same time, we expand the research on the influence of gender differences on stress coping.

• Stress coping

Individuals try to alleviate stress by reducing stressors, regulating negative emotions, and re-establishing their inner balance; in other words, they engage in coping [ 25 ]. The most commonly used definition of stress coping by Lazarus and Folkman is “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands that are far beyond the existing resources of the person” [ 26 ].

Researchers have typically divided coping into two styles: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping [ 27 , 28 ]. However, some researchers have divided coping from the perspective of behavior into two categories: active and avoidant coping [ 17 , 29 ]. Active coping involves considering ways to overcome stress and make plans for subsequent efforts, seeking social support and taking advantage of the situation by learning lessons from it [ 30 ]. Avoidant coping includes withdrawal and avoidance [ 31 , 32 ]. This division is more concise and easier to understand and analyze. Therefore, to better guide practice, we chose this division.

Many scholars have proposed that emotional intelligence and stress coping are inseparable [ 15 , 33 ]. An increasing number of articles have established a relationship between emotional intelligence and stress coping among students [ 16 , 34 ]. These studies seemingly indicate that students with greater emotional intelligence display better stress coping.

In this research, we used Lazarus and Folkman’s definition of stress coping to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress coping among medical students of different genders.

Emotional intelligence and stress coping

Emotional intelligence is related to an individual’s ability to deal with stress [ 24 ]. Emotional intelligence is the ability of individuals to recognize, evaluate, manage and control their own or others’ emotions [ 35 ]. The Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) is one of the most widely used measures of trait emotional intelligence. According to this measure, emotional intelligence includes an individual's specific ability in four aspects: (1) self-emotional appraisal, (2) others’ emotional appraisal, (3) use of emotion, and (4) regulation of emotion. Specifically, self-emotional appraisal relates to the individual’s ability to understand their deep emotions and be able to express these emotions naturally; regulation of emotion is the ability of people to regulate their emotions, which will enable a more rapid recovery from psychological distress; use of emotion is the ability of individuals to make use of their emotions by directing them toward constructive activities and personal performance; and others’ emotional appraisal is the ability to perceive and understand the emotions of those people [ 36 ].

With regard to stress coping, Moradi confirmed that people’s level of emotional intelligence helps in predicting useful stress coping [ 37 ]. Similar results were found in subsequent studies. Goleman argued that emotional intelligence includes traits such as motivation, optimism, adaptability, and warmth [ 38 ]. This adaptive capacity, also known as resilience, enables people to recover from stressful situations in the face of adversity [ 39 ]. High emotional intelligence is related to good adaptability [ 40 ]. In other words, students with high emotional intelligence have greater adaptability when facing stress. Due to their future occupation, medical students face more stress, so adaptability is necessary for them. Students with greater adaptability show a greater tendency to adopt active coping when faced with pressure and mental health problems [ 41 ].

In a study of college students’ stress coping, Fteiha reported a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and active coping [ 33 ]. Similarly, Por reported that individuals with higher emotional intelligence scores engaged in more active coping [ 42 ]. Based on the above discussion, the first hypothesis for this study is as follows:

H1: Emotional intelligence has a positive impact on the active coping of medical students.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to address one’s emotions, and an individual with high emotional intelligence is generally optimistic [ 43 ]. Optimistic students can see the positive side of the undesirable status quo and adopt active coping [ 44 ] instead of avoidant coping to escape stress.

According to a study of first-year law students, those with greater positive affect were less likely to adopt avoidant coping [ 45 ]. Similarly, many studies have shown that individuals with low emotional intelligence use more avoidant coping [ 24 , 46 ]. Based on the above discussion, the second hypothesis of this study is as follows:

H2: Emotional intelligence has a negative impact on the avoidant coping of medical students.

Gender differences and stress coping

Gender is recognized as an important predictor of differences in stress coping. The majority of prior studies found different results. Women believe that they do not have sufficient resources to cope with stress and tend to adopt an active coping style by seeking support from others [ 47 ]. Carver reported that women coped with stress positively by seeking social support, while men coped negatively by using distracting means such as alcohol and drugs [ 48 ]. Similarly, a recent study of law enforcement officers revealed that female officers were significantly more likely to use active coping, including emotional and social support, than male officers were [ 49 ].

However, the results remain somewhat mixed. Due to gender stereotypes, males are often associated with reason, while females are associated with emotion. According to Howerton, females are more likely to adopt avoidance-centered avoidant coping [ 50 ]. Another study revealed that females engage in more avoidant coping and that males engage in more rational active coping [ 51 ]. However, recent research has suggested that there are no statistically significant differences in the methods of coping with psychological stress based on gender [ 24 ].

Gender differences in stress coping can be explained by variations in the types of situations that female and male students typically encounter. Being female may be socially associated with exposure to a specific set of gender-related stressors, such as discrimination, battering, rape, and sexual harassment [ 52 ]. This may mean that different types of stress coping are needed.

Mixed results for the impact of gender on stress coping were found in the previous literature. However, the majority of related research suggests that gender differences have an impact on stress coping. Hence, we clarify the impact of gender differences on the stress coping of medical students. We propose the third hypothesis of the study:

H3: Gender moderates the emotional intelligence and stress coping of medical students.

Above literature reviews indicated that stress coping can be affected by gender and emotional intelligence. This research aimed to compare the associations between emotional intelligence dimensions and stress coping among medical students of different genders.

Sample and data collection

The study was mainly built on a quantitative design and survey research. This research adopted cluster random sampling. Hebei Province, a major province for the enrollment of medical students, was selected as the sampling area. Then, three medical colleges (enrollment number > 1200) were randomly selected from Hebei, as the medical colleges specialize in training medical students.

During the period of March–May 2023, we conducted a survey on the senior students of the two schools with the largest number of students in the three medical colleges, basic medical school and nursing school. The third author distributed the survey questionnaires to 800 Chinese medical students. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants after the researchers explained the purpose, risks, and benefits of the study, as suggested in prior research. Participation was voluntary, and no personally identifiable information was collected. In addition, at the beginning of the questionnaire, there was a cover letter containing information concerning purpose, anonymity, and confidentiality. The letter also included instructions and fill-in methods for those medical student participants.

The distribution of the questionnaires was completed in the classroom. The survey instrument included demographic conditions, the emotional intelligence scale and the stress coping scale and was distributed to each student by the researchers with the assistance of teachers. The questionnaires took approximately 20 min to complete. A questionnaire recovery box was set up in the college, and the participants completed the questionnaire and put into the box by themselves. After 56 invalid questionnaires were excluded, 744 valid questionnaires were finally collected, yielding an effective response rate of 93%.

All the measures were prepared in Chinese. The emotional intelligence scale was initially developed by Law K [ 53 ], and we used a Chinese version of the scale. To avoid distortion in the translation, the scale was independently translated back to English by two professionals and compared with the original English version. The scale has good reliability and validity in the Chinese context [ 54 , 55 ].

Emotional intelligence. Students’ emotional intelligence was measured using the questionnaire adapted from Law K, which consisted of four dimensions: self-emotion appraisal, other-emotion appraisal, use of emotion and regulation of emotion [ 53 ]. The survey included 16 items rated on a five-point scale (from 1 ‘strongly agree’ to 5 ‘strongly disagree’). High scores indicate good emotional intelligence, and low scores indicate poor emotional intelligence. Sample items included “I truly understand what I feel”, “I always know my friends’ emotions from their behavior”, and “I always tell myself I am a competent person”. The internal reliability of this questionnaire was sufficiently high (α = 0. 859).

Stress coping. Students’ stress coping ability was measured using the Chinese version of the questionnaire adapted from Frydenberg, which consisted of two dimensions: active coping and avoidant coping [ 56 ]. The survey included 13 items rated on a four-point scale (from 1 ‘do not use’ to 4 ‘often use’). Sample items were “I do not take the problem too seriously” and “I try to forget the whole thing”. The internal reliability of this questionnaire was sufficiently high (α = 0. 893). The Cronbach’s α for active coping and avoidant coping was 0. 871 and 0. 889, respectively.

Control variables. The moderator of gender was measured as 0 = female and 1 = male. The other demographic variables included only child (1 = yes; 2 = no), major (1 = nursing major; 2 = anesthesiology major, 3 = medical imaging major, 4 = medical laboratory science major), origin (1 = countryside; 2 = town; 3 = city), and class leader (1 = yes; 2 = no). Previous studies have shown that demographic variables, such as origin and being an only child, are likely to influence emotional intelligence and stress coping [ 57 , 58 ]; therefore, these variables were included as control variables.

In this study, the measurement scales were presented to the participants in the following order: demographic variables such as student gender, the emotional intelligence scale, and the stress coping scale.

Data analysis

The SPSS 26 statistical software package was first used for data analysis. The demographic characteristics of the sample are described as the mean (M), standard deviation (SD), number (n), and percentage (%), as appropriate. Group differences in stress coping ability were tested by t tests or one-way ANOVA. We then presented the means, standard deviations, and correlation values among the study variables. Because gender is a binary variable (female or male), we used group comparisons. We asked participants to self-identify their genders. After controlling for other demographic variables, Mplus 7.4 was used to compare the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress coping among students of different genders.

Descriptive statistics

Of all the students who participated in the survey, 81.6% were female, 73% were from the countryside, and 79.3% had brothers or sisters. The majority of the sample (60.1%) were nursing majors, and 79.2% of the students adopted active coping. The respondents’ demographic information and group differences in emotional intelligence and positive and avoidant coping are described in detail in Table  1 . Students who not-only child ( p  < 0.05), who served as class leader ( p  < 0,01) had higher level of emotional intelligence. Students from city had higher level of emotional intelligence ( p  < 0.01). Medical laboratory science major students had a higher level of active coping ( p  < . 001). Anesthesiology students ( p  < 0.01) who served as class leaders ( p  < . 001) had a greater level of avoidant coping. Furthermore, a comparison of emotional intelligence, active coping, and avoidant coping among students from three medical colleges revealed no significant differences. Table 2 details the means, standard deviations, and intervariable correlations. The results indicate a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and stress coping.

Hypothesis testing

Group comparisons were used to compare the associations between emotional intelligence dimensions and stress coping among medical students of different genders. The results are shown in Table  3 .

Figure  1 shows the results of the influence of female medical students’ emotional intelligence dimensions on stress coping. Specifically, for female medical students, self-emotional appraisal significantly negatively predicted avoidant coping (β = -0.173, CI 95% = [-0.243, -0.099], p  < 0.001). However, others’ emotional appraisal significantly positively predicted their active coping (β = 0.146, CI 95% = [0.082,0.214], p  < 0.001). Moreover, use of emotion (β = 0.235, CI 95% = [0.167,0.304], p  < 0.001) and regulation of emotion (β = 0.165, CI 95% = [0.084,0.247], p  < 0.001) significantly predicted active coping.

Female medical students’ emotional intelligence on stress coping. Note: * p  < . 05, ** p  < . 01

Furthermore, Fig.  2 shows the results of the influence of female medical students’ emotional intelligence dimensions on stress coping. For male medical students, the results showed that self-emotional appraisal significantly negatively predicted avoidant coping (β = -0.161, CI 95% = [-0.284, -0.062]; p  < 0.01). In contrast to female medical students, others’ emotional appraisal significantly positively predicted male medical students’ avoidant coping (β = 0.126, CI 95% = [0.043,0.246], p  < 0.001). The use of emotion significantly predicted active coping (β = 0.272, CI 95% = [0.182,0.382], p  < 0.001) and avoidant coping (β = 0.159, CI 95% = [0.054,0.277], p  < 0.05). Additionally, the regulation of emotion significantly negatively predicted avoidant coping (β = -0.221, CI 95% = [-0.363, -0.129], p  < 0.001).

Male medical students’ emotional intelligence on stress coping. Note: * p  < . 05, ** p  < . 01

Subsequently, we tested the moderating effects of gender on emotional intelligence dimensions and stress coping. As shown in Table  4 , we defined Diff = female‒male. None of the 95% CIs included zero, suggesting that the main effect of others’ emotional appraisal on medical students’ active coping was significant and positive (β = 0.178, CI 95% = [0.068,0.292]; p  < 0.05), indicating that others’ emotional appraisal had a greater effect on the active coping of female medical students than on that of male medical students. Additionally, the main effect of regulation of emotion on medical students’ avoidant coping was significant and positive (β = 0.169, CI 95% = [0.002,0.326]; p  < 0.05), which revealed that regulation of emotion had a greater effect on the active coping of female medical students than on that of male medical students.

Figures  3 and 4 provide graphical representations of the moderating effects of gender. The figure shows that with an increase in others' emotional appraisal score, female students engage in more active coping. Similarly, with increasing regulation of emotion, there are significant differences in avoidant coping between female students and male students.

Moderation of gender on others’ emotional appraisal-active coping correlation

Moderation of gender on regulation of emotion-avoidant coping correlation

Interpreting the findings

First, this study is the first to compare the connection between emotional intelligence and stress coping among medical students of different genders. This finding confirms that different emotional intelligence dimensions influence how medical students cope with stress. These comparisons indicate that medical students’ stress coping is complex and influenced by many individual factors. This study therefore contributes to the literature on medical students’ psychological health.

Second, the outcome of the current study confirms that self-emotional appraisal significantly negatively predicts both female and male medical students’ avoidant coping. Medical students with high self-emotional appraisal ability are more aware of changes in their emotional patterns, and they are also more likely to make plans and engage in active coping [ 59 ]. In other words, they will reduce the use of alcohol and other avoidant coping to vent their emotions. However, this finding is contrary to that presented by Jung and Yoon [ 34 ].

Additionally, the use of emotion was found to have the greatest impact on both female and male medical students’ active coping and to have positive and significant effects on male students’ avoidant coping. Students with high scores for the use of emotions will use emotions to relieve stress. There is robust evidence that positive emotions cooccur with negative emotions during intensely stressful situations [ 60 ]. Therefore, students can make full use of positive emotions and adopt positive coping styles. It is also possible to avoid coping due to the guidance of negative emotions. Compared with females, male medical students are less able to identify their negative emotions [ 61 ], resulting in their inability to use negative emotions correctly. Thus, male medical students are more likely to avoid coping under the guidance of negative emotions.

Additionally, the regulation of emotion significantly positively predicts female medical students’ active coping but significantly negatively predicts male medical students’ avoidant coping. Regulation of emotion is the ability of people to regulate their emotions. In other words, medical students with high regulation of emotion ability have greater adaptability [ 10 ]. They are more likely to face stress when they have a positive and optimistic attitude. Thus, the ability to regulate emotion helps female students cope more actively and helps male students cope less effectively. This conclusion is consistent with the literature, which indicates that an increase in the regulation of emotion increases the use of active coping [ 15 , 24 , 34 ]. However, in contrast to Eschenbeck’s results, no gender differences occurred for stress coping related to emotion regulation [ 62 ].

Fourth, others’ emotional appraisal significantly positively predicts female medical students’ active coping. Females pay more attention to participating in social activities [ 63 ], and females are more likely to seek social support to reduce stress [ 64 ]. Thus, students with greater emotional appraisal can better ‘read’ the environment and others’ emotions and respond accordingly to obtain more social support when faced with stress. Videlicet, they will cope more actively. This finding is consistent with previous research findings showing that females cope more actively to relieve stress [ 49 , 65 ].

However, for male medical students, others’ emotional appraisal has statistically positive and significant effects on avoidant coping. Male students who score higher in others’ emotional appraisal are more sensitive to others’ emotions, which leads them to bear more pressure [ 66 ]. Males are more independent and rarely seek help in the face of pressure [ 67 ]. This leads them to engage in more avoidance coping.

Finally, when comparing the influence of the emotional intelligence dimensions of students of different genders on their stress coping, our research indicates that female medical students’ others’ emotional appraisal has a much greater effect on active coping. This may be because under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, the expectations of males and females are different, males are more independent and more responsible, and females are more sensitive and more careful [ 68 ]. Thus, compared with male medical students, female medical students are more sensitive and concerned about the emotions of others. In other words, female medical students are more careful than male medical students in interpersonal relationships. This makes female medical students’ friendships more active, intimate, and emotionally supportive [ 69 ]. Thus, high others’ emotional appraisal helps female medical students maintain a better interpersonal circle and obtain more social support. When female medical students face stress, they are more likely than male medical students to use help-seeking behaviors to actively cope [ 39 ].

Furthermore, male medical students’ regulation of emotion had a stronger effect on the reduction of avoidant coping. This may be because tobacco use and alcohol consumption are greater in males than in females in China [ 70 ]. In other words, when facing stress, males are prone to think of using avoidant coping, such as smoking and drinking, to relieve stress, while females usually do not. Therefore, because females use less avoidant coping, better regulation of emotion has less of an effect on avoidant coping. In contrast, for male medical students, the ability to regulate emotion helps them to better restrain negative feelings and, in its place, promote positive feelings such as confidence, empathy and friendliness [ 71 ]. This helps male medical students face stress with optimism, so they will take the initiative to find a solution and take less avoidant coping.

In general, although female medical students suffer more stressors and are more likely to be affected by stressors [ 72 ], we have found that emotional intelligence can better help female medical students relieve stress than can male medical students.

Contributions to the literature

This research contributes to the empirical investigation of stress coping in several ways. First, we confirmed the moderating effect of gender. Previous studies have reached different conclusions about gender differences in stress coping [ 18 , 20 ]. Moreover, few studies have focused on gender differences in stress coping in the Chinese context. In China, medical students are under great pressure. We examined gender differences in stress coping and identified inconsistencies in previous studies. This study fills the gap in the literature on gender differences in the stress coping of medical students in the Chinese context and helps Chinese medical students better relieve stress.

Second, previous studies have shown that there are gender differences in emotional intelligence and stress coping. However, few studies have tested gender differences in the effect of emotional intelligence on stress coping, which represents a serious gap in the literature. Thus, we have comprehensively promoted the research progress on gender differences in these two fields rather than studying gender differences in emotional intelligence or stress coping in isolation. This can better guide medical students to relieve stress.

Furthermore, in previous research, stress coping strategies have been divided into two categories: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. We divided stress coping behavior into two categories: active coping and avoidant coping. This division is more concise and easier to understand and analyze, so our results can better guide practice.

Implications for Management

The results of this study have many important implications for college education, particularly for medical majors. First, the results of this paper shed light on the complex ways in which emotional intelligence is relevant to Chinese medical students’ active stress coping. Colleges should offer mental health courses so that medical students can maintain a positive and optimistic attitude and can adopt more effective active coping in the face of pressure.

Second, given the larger proportion of female medical students, the results showing that gender differences moderate the effect of emotional intelligence on stress coping could provide an effective solution for college students. Colleges can increase medical students’ emotional intelligence skills through courses and practice, particularly for female students. This can improve students’ emotional intelligence and help them actively cope with stress to relieve their stress and anxiety. A healthy psychological state has a crucial impact on future doctors and nurses.

Finally, according to Damla, seeking social support is the most common stress coping style among doctors and nurses [ 73 ]. Social support is provided by networks comprising family, relatives, and friends. Thus, colleges should encourage students to socialize and make friends. At the same time, colleges should regularly communicate with parents to provide necessary support for students.

Limitations

There are some limitations of this study that may affect the results. One potential limitation is that all variables were measured by self-reports, which may have led to response bias. To overcome this weakness, multiple indices (e.g., physiological and physiological indices) should be used to obtain more reliable information about the emotional intelligence levels of participants in the future.

Second, all the participants in the study were from 3 regions in Hebei Province and from 3 medical colleges. Medical colleges in other provinces were not investigated. The sample data we used may not be sufficiently comprehensive. Future research should attempt to select more colleges by expanding the geographical scope and especially focusing on colleges in first-tier cities to compare the effect of different levels of economic development on students’ emotional intelligence and stress coping. In addition, there are still some important sociocultural factors that we do not take into account. Thus, attention to other variables, such as Chinese culture, is also one of the future research directions.

Finally, we use a cross-sectional study, and only preliminary inferences are made on the relationships between variables. It is impossible to clarify the causal relationships between variables. Tracking research design or experimental research is still needed to further improve the paper.

The results show that the different dimensions of emotional intelligence have different effects on the active/avoidant coping of medical students of different genders. In addition, there are gender differences in the impact of others’ emotional appraisal on active coping and the impact of the regulation of emotion on avoidant coping. This study provides compelling evidence that focusing on gender is useful for improving medical students’ stress management skills. Therefore, different interventions for medical students of different genders are beneficial for increasing the impact of emotional intelligence on stress coping and can be used to help medical students relieve severe stress.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank all the participating medical teachers and students. We would like to express our gratitude to them for their assistance.

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China 71901031.

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N.Z. and Z.X. conducted conceptualization, review and editing, funding acquisition. X.R. and K.Z. participated in methodology, writing, original draft and formal analysis. N.Z. contributed to review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Zhen Xu .

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Zhang, N., Ren, X., Xu, Z. et al. Gender differences in the relationship between medical students’ emotional intelligence and stress coping: a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 810 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05781-9

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05781-9

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Blog The Education Hub

https://educationhub.blog.gov.uk/2024/07/29/teacher-pay-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2024-pay-award/

Teacher pay: everything you need to know about the 2024 pay award

The Education Secretary has accepted the recommendations of the School Teachers’ Review Body (STRB) and confirmed the teacher pay award for 2024-25, setting out what school teachers in England can expect to be paid next academic year.

The STRB is an independent group that makes recommendations on the pay of teachers in maintained schools in England and reports to the Secretary of State for Education and the Prime Minister.

Each year the STRB recommends a pay award based on different factors including the economy, school workforce data and evidence from organisations including the DfE, and the teaching unions.

The government then considers the recommendations in depth and makes a decision on what pay award teachers receive for the coming year.

Here’s everything you need to know about teacher pay.

Are teachers getting a pay rise this year?

The STRB recommended a pay award of 5.5% and this has been accepted in full by the Education Secretary, reflecting the vital contribution teachers make to children’s life chances.

The 5.5% award would see pay packets increase by over £2,500 for the average classroom teacher, which would take the median salary for 2024/25 to over £49,000 a year.

Will teachers at all schools receive the pay award?

The pay award applies to maintained schools, with academies continuing to have freedom over their pay and conditions.

However, in practice most academies follow the recommendations of the STRB.

Is the pay award fully funded?

Yes. Schools will receive £1.1 billion in additional funding to cover their overall costs in financial year 2024-25, including fully funding the pay award for teachers at a national level.

This matches what we have calculated is needed to fully fund the teacher pay award and the support staff pay offer, at the national level, on top of the available headroom in schools’ existing budgets.

We are also providing an additional £97 million for schools delivering post-16 education (£63 million) and early years (£34 million) provision.

Taken together, this is an increase of almost £1.2 billion.

The pay award impacts both financial years 2024-25 and 2025-26. This additional funding only covers the financial year 2024-25 portion of the award. We will take into account the impact of the full year's costs of the teacher pay award on schools when considering 2025-26 budgets, which are yet to be agreed.

When will teachers receive their pay rise?

Teachers will start receiving their new salary in the autumn, after a new pay order is laid in Parliament and comes into force.

Pay will be backdated to 1 September 2024.

Will school support staff get a pay rise?

The teacher pay award only applies to school teachers, but the additional funding schools will receive also ensures schools are, at a national level, covered for the current 2024-25 pay offer for support staff, which is currently under negotiation.

Unlike teachers, most school support staff are currently employed on the pay and conditions of the National Joint Council (NJC) for Local Government Services. The NJC is a negotiating body made up of representatives from trade unions and local government employers.

We are committed to reinstating the School Support Staff Negotiating Body to give support staff like teaching assistants, caretakers and cleaners a stronger voice in government. The body will be tasked with establishing a national terms and conditions handbook, training, career progression routes, and fair pay rates for support staff.

What else are you doing to ensure teaching is an attractive profession?

Alongside the pay award, we have also announced that from September, schools will no longer be required to use the Performance Related Pay (PRP) system, which can lead to schools and teachers going through an overly bureaucratic process to agree individual teachers’ pay rises. This will help improve teacher workload.

We will also clarify that teachers can carry out their planning time at home, improving flexible working for staff.

You may also be interested in:

• What is the national curriculum and why is it being reviewed?
• The King’s Speech 2024: What does it mean for education?
• Letter to the education workforce from Education Secretary Bridget Phillipson

Tags: Chancellor , pay award , school teachers salary , schools , STRB , teacher pay , teacher pay award 2024 , teacher salary

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