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How to Become a Research Psychologist – Schooling and Degree Guide [2024 Guide]

In contemplating psychology as an occupation, thoughts wander to hands-on professions such as counseling and therapy. However, a sizable segment of the field involves little practical work, and is more concerned with theoretical aspects of psychology.

Do you prefer fixed numbers to subjective diagnoses? Scientific observations to patient treatment? If so, perhaps a career in research psychology is for you.

Are You an Analytical Person?

Before jumping on the research psychology bandwagon, ask yourself if you’re truly an analytical person. An indispensable prerequisite for a career in research psychology is having a firm grasp of – and perhaps a natural inclination toward –working with numbers and data. Dictionary.com defines the term analytic thinking as “the abstract separation of a whole into its constituent parts in order to study the parts and their relations,” and that’s exactly what research entails.

Hence, questions it would behoove you to ask are: How did I cope with math in school? Did I do well in my college statistics class? If the answer is negative, could you learn to enjoy it? Are you prepared to make the sacrifices necessary to become a resourceful statistician? In going forward with this profession, a resounding “yes” should be your only answer.

What is a Research Psychologist?

Research psychologists are found in every branch of psychology. It is often not a specific job title, but rather represents an area of emphasis for psychologists when undertaking research in their specific field, such as developmental psychology , industrial-organizational psychology , biological psychology , social psychology , and the like.

For example, a social psychologist might undertake research on the manner in which children are socialized in rural, highly religious communities and compare that to the way children in urban, non-religious communities are socialized.

Another example might be a health psychologist conducting research on nutrition and wellness for a government agency.

Research psychologists are trained in experimental methods and statistics. They utilize the scientific method to formulate and test hypotheses, develop experiments, collect and analyze data, and use that information to develop conclusions and report on their findings.

Two common types of studies research psychologists undertake are:

• Experiments – research psychologists conduct experiments both in controlled lab settings and out in the field. An example might be examining the social behaviors of small groups in a rural town.
• Case studies – psychologists conducting research often utilize this method when studying an individual or small group. Observing how a particular family overcomes the trauma of a natural disaster is an example of a case study.

Despite the significant differences in the ways that research psychologists conduct their studies, the tie that binds research psychologists together across disciplines is that at the heart of their research, they are seeking to understand better how humans and non-human animals feel, think, learn, and act.

What Does a Research Psychologist Do?

A research psychologist carries out many duties as it pertains to studying human behavior. Many research psychologists work for private companies or organizations conducting studies pertinent to the purpose of their employer. For example, a university might employ a research psychologist to explore methods to improve teaching and learning.

Alternatively, a research psychologist working for a non-profit human services organization might study ways to improve the bonding experience between adopted children and their adopted parents.

Research psychologists also conduct much research on behalf of governmental agencies. For example, a psychologist may research the efficacy of psycho-social intervention programs implemented by the Bureau of Prisons, looking for positive outcomes for participants in the program.

Likewise, a research psychologist working for the National Institute of Mental Health may investigate current rates of certain psychological disorders among the general population.

Other psychologists with training in research work in academic settings. Colleges and universities employ research specialists to conduct research or even assist with the development of on-campus policies and procedures regarding psychological research. For example, a research psychologist might devise rules and regulations pertaining to human or animal-based research in the psychology department.

Many research psychologists also teach. Again, colleges and universities – both public and private – might hire a psychologist with training in research to teach undergraduate courses in various genres of psychology.

There would also be opportunity for more specialized teaching assignments, such as those that train graduate or doctoral students to conduct research of their own. Typical course assignments for research psychologists include research psychology, statistics, and ethics.

Yet other research psychologists are employed by private businesses to help them create improved working environments. Research psychologists might be employed to investigate issues like low employee morale or low production rates. They may also seek to improve workplace safety by examining the types of accidents that occur, when and where they occur, and the conditions under which they occur as well.

What are the Degree and Schooling Requirements to Become a Research Psychologist?

A career in psychology usually requires a graduate degree, and the sub-field of research psychology is certainly no different.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, most research psychologists need not just a Master’s degree, but a full-out Ph.D. or PsyD, to land a job of pleasing stature. Hence, normally expect 5-6 years of study even after graduating college.

Having completed coursework in experimental psychology and statistics will be of great importance, probably more so than for you than any other type of psychologist.

Obtaining psychology license generally require pre-doctoral and postdoctoral supervised experience, an internship, or a residency program, which may span 12 months or more. Sometimes more than one of them is needed.

Where Does a Research Psychologist Work?

Research psychologists typically work in the following environments:

• Colleges and universities
• Law enforcement agencies
• Consulting and private research firms
• Government research groups
• Government and Private businesses
• War veterans and disaster post-traumatic counseling

What Skills are Required for a Research Psychologist?

Successful research psychologists have the following skills :

• Research skills – It goes without saying that research psychologist must be highly trained in research methodologies, including experimental design, observational techniques, and sampling methods.
• Math and statistics skills – Research psychologists must also have a strong grasp on the statistical methods used to analyze research, including qualitative and quantitative methods of analyzing and interpreting data.
• Computer literacy – Psychologists in this field are required to be highly computer literate. Computers and computer programs are used for all phases of research, from designing research studies to analyzing data to reporting data for publication.
• Speaking and writing skills – Research psychologists must be able to clearly and accurately summarize their findings both in verbal and written forms. Good linguistic skills are also necessary for interacting with other members of the research team and with subjects participating in the study.
• Analytical skills – Analytical skills are necessary because they need to be able to see both the fine details and the bigger picture. Higher-ordered analytical skills assist researchers in identifying patterns, highlighting anomalies, and sifting through mountains of data to come to a logical conclusion.
• Skepticism – It can be difficult for researchers to avoid seeing what they want to see in their research. As a result, research psychologists need to have the ability to critically evaluate their work and the work of others.

What is the Employment Outlook for Research Psychologists?

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the job outlook for psychologists as a whole is 6 percent.

Unfortunately, the BLS does not offer details regarding the employment outlook specifically for research psychology. While the field will most likely not grow as quickly as other psychology disciplines, it’s still reasonable to assume that strong growth will occur. This is due in large part to an increased interest in the underlying mechanisms of behavior, such as genetics and environmental factors.

Because research psychologists specialize in conducting studies on popular topics like drug and alcohol addiction, there should be plenty of job opportunities in the coming years. This is especially true of research psychologists that have an advanced degree, like a doctorate, or have additional training in psychological research methods.

What is the Salary of a Research Psychologist?

As of February 2024, research psychologists earn a median salary of $127,818 per year. However, as in many other areas of psychology, salaries fluctuate considerably depending on the number of years of experience in the industry, as well as the sector of employment.

Individuals who go into industrial-organizational psychology average as much as $132,191 annually, which is more than any other area of psychology.

Related Reading

• What is the Difference Between Masters and PhD in Psychology?
• What Can You Do With a Bachelor of Arts Psychology Degree?
• Difference Between Applied Psychology and Experimental Psychology
• What are the Differences Between Research Psychology and Applied Psychology?
• What is the Difference Between Counseling and Clinical Psychology Graduate Programs?

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Choosing to Focus on Research as a Psychologist

Sponsored school(s).

As one of the most popular undergraduate majors in the United States, psychology prepares students to gain entrance in a range of rewarding and exciting careers. Every year, students will cultivate an interest in pursuing an advanced course of study that solely concentrates on the research aspect of psychology. Educators and experts stress the importance of students preparing early for the application process, thoroughly researching their options, and becoming more active within the field.

See " So I majored in psychology ".

The Process of Psychology Research

The Scientific Method is a set of principles and procedures that researchers use to create questions, collect data, and arrive at conclusions . This approach allows researchers to accomplish their goals for their psychological studies, which is to describe, explain, predict, and in some cases, influence processes or behaviors of the mind. The ultimate goal of scientific research in psychology is to illustrate behaviors and give details on why they take place. Researchers also strive to predict (and sometimes, modify) human behavior.

Before people begin the process of research, they must select a topic of study. Researchers then conduct an exhaustive review of existing publications and information that relates to the subject. In the end, it becomes clearer as to which topic questions remain unanswered. A researcher may examine books and academic journals that date back decades to assess the most relevant topics of study. All background material helps a researcher formulate the first step in the psychology research process – the hypothesis.

The four steps of the research process are:

Step 1 – Formulate a Testable Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables, or a specific occurrence or trend. Researchers go on to provide an explanation of their research, which either proves or disproves their theories.

Step 2 – Create a Study and Collect Data: There are two basic types of research methods to consider that fit the need to collect data for a study – descriptive research and experimental research.

Step 3 – Examine Data and Reach Conclusions: A researcher looks over the information they collect, and with the help of statistics, they summarize the data, analyze results and draw conclusions about their findings.

Step 4 – Report the Findings of the Study : Researchers lastly share their findings by creating a description of the study, and publish an article in an academic or professional journal.

Types of Psychology Research Methods

Psychology research takes place inside of laboratories, and often includes experiments, testing, and the analysis of statistical data. Psychology researchers may also work in the field (gathering data in hospitals, schools, workplaces, and even on city streets) with a goal to observe and study behavior in their most naturally-occurring settings.

Not every psychology researcher will use the same methods to study their topic of interest, and it all depends on his or her sources of information, data samples, and data collection techniques.

A researcher may collect qualitative data, quantitative data, or both.

Qualitative psychological data involves research findings that do not include statistical or other related procedures, while quantitative psychological data involves research findings that incorporate a mathematical model or statistical estimation.

Common approaches and data collection methods for psychology research include:

• Case Studies: A thorough analysis of a single person, small group, or event, such as studying a man with a rare, incurable brain disease.
• Content Analysis: A study of recorded human communications, such as books, laws and art. Examples include the analysis of the speeches of Kennedy and Nixon in televised debates, or the examination of graffiti of males and females in public bathrooms.
• Cross Sectional Study: Samples of a population sheds light on information relating to specific measures. An example is a researcher who questions whether sugar consumption affects a specific health concern.
• Field Experiments: Traveling to hunter-gatherer regions in South America to test out universal relationship behaviors is an example of research that studies subjects in his or her natural setting.
• Survey: Random sampling of a population using a question-format collects valuable information. Examples include public health, market research, and government surveys.

Education Requirements of a Psychology Researcher

A bachelor's degree in psychology allows people to work as research or administrative assistants for psychologists. Other job prospects include becoming a technician in a related field (such as market research) or assisting psychologists in mental health centers and correctional programs. After acquiring years of experience under the guidance of professional psychologists, many people make the decision to pursue graduate and doctoral studies in psychology.

While the doctoral degree is the standard for independent research or practice in psychology, the number of psychology students who pursue a terminal master's degree has increased sixfold since 1960 – master's degrees totaled at least 21,400 in 2008. A master's degree in psychology allows people to work as assistants under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists. Master's degree holders with several years of business experience obtain jobs in consulting and marketing research, while others land jobs within the government, universities, or the private sector as researchers, data collectors, and analysts .

A doctorate's degree in psychology typically involves five to seven years of graduate study, which ends with a dissertation involving original research . The advanced degree opens many doors to opportunities involving research and teaching positions at universities, health care services, private industries, and with the government. Psychologists with a doctoral degree often choose to conduct their own research studies while accepting a career position in the meantime.

Individuals that obtain a higher level of psychology education and experience typically encounter a larger number of job offers and opportunities to conduct research over someone without an advanced degree, other credentials, and years of experience.

Ways to Gain Experience in Research Psychology

Students with an interest in pursuing the academia route of psychology benefit the most when they accumulate as much experience as possible. Those who start early gain a definite competitive edge.

"The most noticeable current trend is just how many undergraduates are getting involved in research," says Gary W. Lewandowski Jr. Ph.D, the Department Chair of the Department of Psychology at Monmouth University. "Not only are more students getting involved, but more are doing so at a high level [such as] presenting at research conferences."

The most important thing that Mitchell Metzger says he tells students about research is to get involved early. "We have many of our students helping out in the lab with research projects as early as their sophomore year," says Metzger, a professor of Psychology at Ashland University (Ohio) and department chair since 2007. "When a student gets involved early in their undergraduate career, they really have the opportunity to build a variety of experiences by the time they graduate."

He says that while the students may start out in 'lower level' research roles such as data collection and data entry, they are undergoing valuable preparation for diving more deeply into the research process.

The countless opportunities that a student can gain psychology research experience and knowledge are:

• Help Out a Professor – Dr. Lewandowski suggests getting started as early in your academic career as possible. "Even if you have not had a research class yet, if a professor is willing to have you help out, you will not only get a head start, but will learn a lot that will make taking the class easier," he says. "The more experience you can get the better."
• Find a Mentor – Some of the best ways to gain experience in psychology is learning from those already in the field. "The amount of work may be daunting at first, but just like anything else, you adjust over time and find new ways to manage," says Kongit Farrell, who is a life and relationship coach with a Master's degree in Clinical Psychology from Pepperdine University. "Just keep at it and work on finding a mentor to help."
• Attend or Present at a Psychology Conference – "We have a number of graduates with multiple conference presentations under their belts by the time they finish their bachelor's degree, which is a huge advantage for them as they apply to graduate schools," says Metzger. "Many graduate programs see undergraduate research experience as valuable, regardless of what the specific area of research might be that the student was involved in.  
• Write and Publish Articles and Papers – "It is becoming more necessary for undergraduates to have co-authored journal articles in order to get into Ph.D. programs after college," says Dr. Lewandowski.
• Become a Research Assistant – Obtaining a research assistant position is a valuable opportunity to gain experience, and forge professional connections that can help in the future. Universities, hospitals, and private organizations hire assistants to conduct research on psychology projects. Having previous experience working in labs or on academic research projects improves the chance of being accepted into advanced degree programs and research jobs after graduation.
• Join a Psychology Organization – There are psychology-related organizations and associations that cater to varying ethnicities, regions, nations, and fields of study. For example, the Association for Psychological Science has more than 20,000 members and is the largest general psychology organization that mainly concentrates on research.
• Read APA Magazines and Newsletter Articles – Reading APA magazine and newsletter articles about research tools and methods , as well as the Monitor on Psychology and gradPSYCH magazines keep students in tune with the latest in psychology research.
• Independent Research with Faculty Advisor – Taking advantage of independent research and study projects allows undergraduate students to work closely with professors who serve as advisors. The student and faculty usually share a mutual interest. These professors can also write strong letters of recommendation for future graduate study, which demonstrates a student's ability to work independently.

"A growing trend [in the field of research psychology] is the recognition of the value of undergraduate research for building critical thinking skills, analytical skills, and communication skills," says Lewandowski.

Graduate school programs aim to further strengthen these necessary qualities and skills of someone with an interest in pursuing a career in psychology research. This includes:

• Analytical skills help students perform psychological research by sharpening their ability to examine information and draw logical conclusions.
• Communication skills aid a psychologists' ability to listen to and speak with subjects.
• Observational skills help a psychologist study attitude and behavior by perfecting their ability to analyze the facial expressions, actions, interactions, and body positions of people.
• Patience allows researchers to deal with subjects who exhibit mental or behavioral disorders.
• People skills help researchers work well with their test subjects, interviewees, and other medical professionals.
• Problem-solving skills assist researchers in pinpointing treatments and solutions pertaining to mental and behavioral issues.

Before Applying to Graduate Schools for Psychology Research

Students with an interest in graduate-level psychology research tend to experience a more beneficial application process when they pinpoint a specific area of study before applying.

Conducting an ample amount of research also makes final school selections much easier to achieve, and helps iron out the details of future plans. It is important for students to apply to a program that accommodates their values, abilities and interests. Finding the right graduate program is one of the keys to succeeding in the psychology research field.

Dr. Lewandowski is a researcher who studies intimate relationships and the self. He says that this subject allows him to concentrate on topics that he is 'eternally curious about' regarding what makes some relationships successful while others fail, such as attraction, cheating, and break-ups.

"From my experience, students can learn the importance of staying true to your interests," says Lewandowski. "I love what I research, which has made it a lot easier to be successful.

Incorporating the primary interests of a student with the availability of specialty programs and personal criteria such as location, cost of tuition and time commitments, helps students narrow down their options for choosing the right psychology graduate school.

A good resource for researching psychology graduate programs of interest is the American Psychological Association, which publishes the Graduate Study in Psychology and Related Fields – a listing of  all graduate programs in North America by state and subject area . The Princeton Review also provides helpful information. Books on graduate programs are also available at the school library, career services office, and campus bookstores.

Some experts recommend applying to at least six graduate psychology schools, while others suggest applying to as many as 20 . However, application fees get expensive, so requesting applications only from the schools a student truly wishes to attend will help them stick to a budget. Therefore, spending quality time investigating available options not only makes the overall application process easier, but also saves money.

How to Apply to Graduate Schools for Psychology Research

Students who prepare early and get acquainted with the psychology graduate school application process face an easier road towards fulfilling their research career goals. Aside from filling out the proper forms, maintaining an acceptable GPA, and demonstrating research experience, there are four significant components relating to the typical application package – official undergraduate transcripts, Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores, a personal statement, and letters of recommendation.

Schools generally expect applicants to fulfill the following:

1. Submit Graduate Record Examination (GRE) and other test scores – Most psychology graduate schools require GRE scores – a computer-based test that students take well before application deadlines. The GRE includes electronic testing that rates a student's Verbal, Quantitative, Analytical Writing aptitude. Many graduate schools also request the results of the Psychology Subject Exam – a paper test that is held three times a year.

2. Maintain a strong undergraduate GPA – Advanced degree programs in psychology typically accept applicants who possess a median GPA of 3.7 with a GRE score more than 1100, and relevant research experience. For some master's programs in psychology, a GPA of 3.4 is fairly competitive. For doctoral programs, students fair well with a GPA of 3.5 or higher.

3. Furnish exemplary letters of recommendation – Professors often tell students to discuss recommendations well in advance with faculty members in a face-to-face manner. Faculty members that a student takes at least two courses and performs at a high level (preferably a combination of no less than 'A' and 'B' grades) make the best choices. Academic interaction outside of class with the professors is a plus.

4. Write a personal statement (or statement of purpose) – A student's statement is his or her chance to add a personal touch to the application process. It sets students apart from one another, and gives the opportunity to share specific interests in the field, strengths, skills, career goals, and aspirations. A student often shares the reason why they are applying to a specific program. The selection committee uses a personal statement to assess a student's writing ability, as well as determine who the best fit for their program is.

5. Prepare a vita – Students wishing to enter a graduate or doctoral program for research psychology write a vita, which is basically an academic resume. Typical features include professional/academic honors and awards, honor Society memberships, Dean's List recognition, research concentration, presentations at professional conferences or workshops, publications, and memberships in professional organizations.

6. Demonstrate relevant research or work experience – Having research and experience in psychology significantly boosts the value of an application. Work and volunteer activities in psychology also highlight a student's enthusiasm and commitment to the field.

Psychology Research Grants and Scholarships

There are numerous research grants and scholarship opportunities available for students looking to fund their pursuit of obtaining an advanced degree in psychology. A few options include:

• APAGS/Psi Chi Junior Scientist Fellowship – promotes psychological science and the needs of students entering a research-oriented graduate program.
• Basic Psychological Science Research Grant – supports graduate students conducting psychological science research studies.

Challenges of Becoming a Psychology Researcher

Graduate programs in psychology prepare students for the oftentimes rigorous schedule of juggling numbers and sorting endless information – skills a student needs to work on as an undergrad. But first, students must find his or her niche, and solidify their position within the field.

Lewandowski says that students may face the challenge of finding a professor who does research in the exact topic of their interest. "However, the good news is that any research experience is good research experience, and the exact topic is less important," he adds. "Even if you know you want to go on to study treatments for anorexia, your undergraduate research does not need to have the same focus."

Sometimes, the challenge is not finding a professor within the same niche to study under, but instead, locating people who are open to new theories and approaches within the field.

"I focus on applying biological concepts to social science," says Farrell, who studies topics such as why women and men make the choices they do in relationships. "It's a relatively new approach and because of this, sometimes people have not been receptive to my ideas."

However, Farrell says that over time, more people grew to realize that her work was correct, but she mentions that "being a thought leader in any profession can be daunting."

"You just have to do good work, have faith in your vision, stick to your guns, and keep moving forward," adds Farrell. She also says that developing a supportive group of friends, mentors, and loved ones makes a great deal of difference.

Becoming a psychologist that concentrates on research is often a time-consuming journey.

"One of the main challenges for our students is prioritizing their time to fit research into their busy lives," notes Metzger. "Once a student buys in to the idea that these experiences will be valuable to them, they'll need to prioritize their time to do these experiences as they are often completed outside the context of a class they are taking [for example]…they do research in their spare time."

Metzger says that some of the students at Ashland University may only have a few hours each week to devote to research, while others have considerably more time in the schedules for such activities. "Regardless of how much time they have to engage in the research process," adds Metzger. "Any exposure will be better than no exposure."

Farrell is also a reminder to students to remain steadfast in the field.

"Be prepared for long hours, and a lot of numerical and data analysis work," says Farrell. "On the flip side, this work could lead you to a very rewarding and financially lucrative career stretching from

entertainment, to business to health to politics; the world can be your oyster!"

Job Prospects for Psychology Researchers

Upon graduation, psychology researchers typically find jobs either out in the field, inside a classroom, or in a laboratory. The majority of lab research takes place in universities, government agencies (such as the National Institute of Health), and private research organizations. Some graduates may find employment in management or administration after serving many years as an active researcher.

Psychology researchers may work independently, join a team, or participate in collective research on a national or global level. In 2010, psychologists held about 174,000 jobs : working self-employed (about 34 percent), in educational services (29 percent), and in healthcare settings (20 percent). Some non-profit organizations and many colleges will hire people with a bachelor's degree in psychology to conduct research. A few government organizations and some private businesses may do the same.

The APA tells students to pool their resources and experiences as they look for a psychology research position , including internships, participating in service learning events, and even volunteering at a school. Eric Landrum, PhD, author of "Finding Jobs with a Psychology Bachelor's Degree," says that networking is critical. Staying in contact with professors and faculty is also an asset since graduates still require references and letters of recommendation when applying for psychology jobs.

However, it is the graduate with an advanced degree in psychology and solid experience under his or her belt that qualifies for more job opportunities. There are also many job positions available that incorporate other areas of interest, such as:

• Alcohol and Drug Research: Example studies of interest include the impact of alcohol and drug abuse, fetal alcohol syndrome, long-term effects of a drug on the central nervous system, or a drug's impact on a pregnancy.
• Experimental Research: Researchers that enjoy conducting experiments in a lab often explore the cause and effect of human behavior, physiology, and psychology. They rely heavily upon test results, surveys, questionnaires, and observations.
• Medical School Research: Speaks best to graduates with an interest in medicine, academia, obtaining grants/fellowships, and lecturing.
• Military Research: Researchers may study post-traumatic stress disorder, the effects of war on soldiers during enlistment, depression and aggression within the armed forces, and drug use after retirement.
• Nutrition Research: Questionnaires, surveys, and interviews help researchers study the eating habits of males and females, and sometimes involve issues, such as bulimia, anorexia, excessive weight control and malnutrition.
• Social Research: Surveys, interviews, and observation helps with the field study of social issues, such as criminal activity, homelessness, and poverty.

Trends in Psychology Research

As the American population evolves, the demand for clinical and research psychologists increases. Research psychologists fill the duties of identifying the services and solutions that benefit an aging population who is living longer, and facing an upsurge in mental and physical obstacles.

Farrell says she is seeing a switch from compartmentalization to integration within the field. "…psychology is no longer just about your findings," she says. "…but finding out ways to apply your findings to other disciplines.

Psychology researchers play roles such as assisting in the development of programs for special groups , such as veterans with war trauma, individuals with autism, patients with mental disorders, and people with job stress.

The opportunities for people with advanced degrees in psychology are expanding in number, as there is a greater need to move towards illness prevention rather than simply making a diagnosis and treatment plan. The majority of today's issues within society involve behavior problems that include chronic health conditions or disease, drug addiction, poor personal relationships, disregard for the environment, and violence. Research psychologists play a greater role in contributing solutions to these problems by using thoughtful methods of data collection and analysis that helps develop effective intervention strategies.

The increasing diversity throughout America places research psychologists in higher demand to develop and enhance existing treatments and approaches to meet the growing needs of people representing different races and ethnicities.

Just as a constantly evolving society affects psychology research, advancements in technology also play a role in the current trends sweeping the field, such as:

• The Internet: The Internet changes the face of data collection and the exchange of information. The advantages, such as having a greater access to research, helps improve the science of psychology. Research psychologists use prominent online databases, such as PsychInfo and ERIC, to aid the literature review process.

Psychologists also use email alerts to receive updates regarding the leading publications in the field. Other benefits include the sharing of cross-cultural psychology ideas, the ability to conduct online experiments, and the creation of archived data sets for secondary analysis.

Online research also has its downfalls that can detract from the validity and effectiveness of studies, including the potential for obtaining and spreading misinformation. One of the reasons the American Psychological Association's online journal Prevention & Treatment is a success hinges upon maintaining a high standard of scholarship. Not all resources follow suit, which causes a detrimental effect on the outcome of studies and data analysis.

Researchers who use the Internet as a tool for data collection must seek out reputable methods and sources of information, such as specially designed websites, highly rated, well-organized databases, and efficient software.

• Advancements in Equipment and Software: Advancements in equipment and software play a significant part in the research process of psychologists that go beyond the distribution of research findings and using typical methods of data collection. Take the growth of Imaging and Computer Modeling equipment for example – researchers benefit from obtaining high resolution pictures of the brain to make determinations regarding certain cognitive processes.

Other examples of advanced technology include the MRI, thermal imaging, real-time tracking software, computer-assisted therapies, and upgraded electronic data collection tools, such as video recorders and tablet apps.

Psychologists generally keep up with the latest trends in research psychology by following current news, attending conferences, networking with colleagues, and continuing to learn more about their field. For example, psychological researchers can gain training and hands-on experience in a variety of areas by taking part in APA Advanced Training Institutes (ATIs) , which exposes participants to emerging technologies and the most current research methodologies.

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Understanding Methods for Research in Psychology

A Psychology Research Methods Study Guide

Types of Research in Psychology

• Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Research
• Reliability and Validity

Glossary of Terms

Research in psychology focuses on a variety of topics , ranging from the development of infants to the behavior of social groups. Psychologists use the scientific method to investigate questions both systematically and empirically.

Research in psychology is important because it provides us with valuable information that helps to improve human lives. By learning more about the brain, cognition, behavior, and mental health conditions, researchers are able to solve real-world problems that affect our day-to-day lives.

At a Glance

Knowing more about how research in psychology is conducted can give you a better understanding of what those findings might mean to you. Psychology experiments can range from simple to complex, but there are some basic terms and concepts that all psychology students should understand.

Start your studies by learning more about the different types of research, the basics of experimental design, and the relationships between variables.

Research in Psychology: The Basics

The first step in your review should include a basic introduction to psychology research methods . Psychology research can have a variety of goals. What researchers learn can be used to describe, explain, predict, or change human behavior.

Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct studies and research in psychology. The basic process of conducting psychology research involves asking a question, designing a study, collecting data, analyzing results, reaching conclusions, and sharing the findings.

The Scientific Method in Psychology Research

The steps of the scientific method in psychology research are:

• Make an observation
• Ask a research question and make predictions about what you expect to find
• Test your hypothesis and gather data
• Examine the results and form conclusions
• Report your findings

Research in psychology can take several different forms. It can describe a phenomenon, explore the causes of a phenomenon, or look at relationships between one or more variables. Three of the main types of psychological research focus on:

Descriptive Studies

This type of research can tell us more about what is happening in a specific population. It relies on techniques such as observation, surveys, and case studies.

Correlational Studies

Correlational research is frequently used in psychology to look for relationships between variables. While research look at how variables are related, they do not manipulate any of the variables.

While correlational studies can suggest a relationship between two variables, finding a correlation does not prove that one variable causes a change in another. In other words, correlation does not equal causation.

Experimental Research Methods

Experiments are a research method that can look at whether changes in one variable cause changes in another. The simple experiment is one of the most basic methods of determining if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.

A simple experiment utilizes a control group of participants who receive no treatment and an experimental group of participants who receive the treatment.

Experimenters then compare the results of the two groups to determine if the treatment had an effect.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Research in Psychology

Research in psychology can also involve collecting data at a single point in time, or gathering information at several points over a period of time.

Cross-Sectional Research

In a cross-sectional study , researchers collect data from participants at a single point in time. These are descriptive type of research and cannot be used to determine cause and effect because researchers do not manipulate the independent variables.

However, cross-sectional research does allow researchers to look at the characteristics of the population and explore relationships between different variables at a single point in time.

Longitudinal Research

A longitudinal study is a type of research in psychology that involves looking at the same group of participants over a period of time. Researchers start by collecting initial data that serves as a baseline, and then collect follow-up data at certain intervals. These studies can last days, months, or years. 

The longest longitudinal study in psychology was started in 1921 and the study is planned to continue until the last participant dies or withdraws. As of 2003, more than 200 of the partipants were still alive.

The Reliability and Validity of Research in Psychology

Reliability and validity are two concepts that are also critical in psychology research. In order to trust the results, we need to know if the findings are consistent (reliability) and that we are actually measuring what we think we are measuring (validity).

Reliability

Reliability is a vital component of a valid psychological test. What is reliability? How do we measure it? Simply put, reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.

When determining the merits of a psychological test, validity is one of the most important factors to consider. What exactly is validity? One of the greatest concerns when creating a psychological test is whether or not it actually measures what we think it is measuring.

For example, a test might be designed to measure a stable personality trait but instead measures transitory emotions generated by situational or environmental conditions. A valid test ensures that the results accurately reflect the dimension undergoing assessment.

Review some of the key terms that you should know and understand about psychology research methods. Spend some time studying these terms and definitions before your exam. Some key terms that you should know include:

• Correlation
• Demand characteristic
• Dependent variable
• Hawthorne effect
• Independent variable
• Naturalistic observation
• Placebo effect
• Random assignment
• Replication
• Selective attrition

Erol A.  How to conduct scientific research ?  Noro Psikiyatr Ars . 2017;54(2):97-98. doi:10.5152/npa.2017.0120102

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies .  Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O. Importance and use of correlational research .  Nurse Res . 2016;23(6):20-25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382

Wang X, Cheng Z. Cross-sectional studies: Strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations .  Chest . 2020;158(1S):S65-S71. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012

Caruana EJ, Roman M, Hernández-Sánchez J, Solli P. Longitudinal studies .  J Thorac Dis . 2015;7(11):E537-E540. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.10.63

Stanford Magazine. The vexing legacy of Lewis Terman .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Key Research and Study Skills in Psychology

• Sieglinde McGee - University of Dublin Trinity College, Ireland
• Description

'I am happy to recommend this to my students as it covers jargon without using jargon and explains all those simple things that many academics take for granted. It also gives good examples of how to get the best from your time studying psychology from how to write good essays to the rules of writing lab reports.'

Dr Joy Coogan, University of East London

This book provides students with a wide range of research and study skills necessary for achieving a successful classification on a psychology degree course. It replaces the stress and fear experienced when encountering essays, reports, statistics and exams with a sense of confidence, enthusiasm and even fun.

Sieglinde McGee presents indispensable instruction, advice and tips on note making and note taking, evaluating academic literature, writing critical essays, preparing for and doing essay and MCQ exams, understanding research methods and issues associated with conducting research, writing and presenting reports and research and also some important computer skills. Examples provided will show how to score well on assignments and exams and also the sort of approach, layout, errors, omissions or answer-style that would achieve a lower grade. Practical exercises and interactive tasks are integrated throughout to clarify key points and give the students a chance to practise on their own.

This is a useful resource for students taking modules in study and research skills in psychology and an essential guide for all other students studying on psychology programmes.

Dr Sieglinde McGee is an Associate of the School of Psychology at Trinity College, Dublin, where she taught for several years.

'I am happy to recommend this to my students as it covers jargon without using jargon and explains all those simple things that many academics take for granted. It also gives good examples of how to get the best from your time studying psychology from how to write good essays to the rules of writing lab reports' - Dr Jay Coogan University of East London

The book is very approachable, has some great information, and students seem to enjoy it at first glance. I had several students tell me that they had read and written in the book almost immediately upon receiving it. Even before the assigned readings were due.

I did not like the style of writing in this book. I also felt it made assumptions regarding the readers abilities i.e. it was pitched at too high a level. It was a short read - maybe too short? Not sure at what level the book is aimed and I think it suffers because of this.

nice easy to read book that may encourage students to think further...

Seems to be pretty good, the author has clearly stated all the information related to Research & study skills. Most of the students are very much concerned about research skills and this will give a better understanding to them.

Good comprehensive coverage of tools and the necessary skills required to achieve success.

Useful book to provide an overview of research and study skills in psychology using real examples from the field. It is good to introduce the students to a wide range of research. Especially the report writing section something the students often have difficulty with.

Book is too basic for 3rd year students. Have however recommended it to colleague who coordinates tutorials for 1st year students.

This is an excellent book to recommend to university students studying psychology as it is written by a lecturer in the field and from the point of view of someone who struggled with study skills as an undergraduate.

It is clearly laid out and covers points relevant to psychology students, but in a language that other students could understand as well. Some good examples of sample essays are provided, which is what the students ask for most often. Other relevant areas covered include improving writing, critical thinking and exam preparation.

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The Use of Research Methods in Psychological Research: A Systematised Review

Salomé elizabeth scholtz.

1 Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), School of Psychosocial Health, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Werner de Klerk

Leon t. de beer.

2 WorkWell Research Institute, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Research methods play an imperative role in research quality as well as educating young researchers, however, the application thereof is unclear which can be detrimental to the field of psychology. Therefore, this systematised review aimed to determine what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in the field. Our review of 999 articles from five journals over a period of 5 years indicated that psychology research is conducted in 10 topics via predominantly quantitative research methods. Of these 10 topics, social psychology was the most popular. The remainder of the conducted methodology is described. It was also found that articles lacked rigour and transparency in the used methodology which has implications for replicability. In conclusion this article, provides an overview of all reported methodologies used in a sample of psychology journals. It highlights the popularity and application of methods and designs throughout the article sample as well as an unexpected lack of rigour with regard to most aspects of methodology. Possible sample bias should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. It is recommended that future research should utilise the results of this study to determine the possible impact on the field of psychology as a science and to further investigation into the use of research methods. Results should prompt the following future research into: a lack or rigour and its implication on replication, the use of certain methods above others, publication bias and choice of sampling method.

Introduction

Psychology is an ever-growing and popular field (Gough and Lyons, 2016 ; Clay, 2017 ). Due to this growth and the need for science-based research to base health decisions on (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013 ), the use of research methods in the broad field of psychology is an essential point of investigation (Stangor, 2011 ; Aanstoos, 2014 ). Research methods are therefore viewed as important tools used by researchers to collect data (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 ) and include the following: quantitative, qualitative, mixed method and multi method (Maree, 2016 ). Additionally, researchers also employ various types of literature reviews to address research questions (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). According to literature, what research method is used and why a certain research method is used is complex as it depends on various factors that may include paradigm (O'Neil and Koekemoer, 2016 ), research question (Grix, 2002 ), or the skill and exposure of the researcher (Nind et al., 2015 ). How these research methods are employed is also difficult to discern as research methods are often depicted as having fixed boundaries that are continuously crossed in research (Johnson et al., 2001 ; Sandelowski, 2011 ). Examples of this crossing include adding quantitative aspects to qualitative studies (Sandelowski et al., 2009 ), or stating that a study used a mixed-method design without the study having any characteristics of this design (Truscott et al., 2010 ).

The inappropriate use of research methods affects how students and researchers improve and utilise their research skills (Scott Jones and Goldring, 2015 ), how theories are developed (Ngulube, 2013 ), and the credibility of research results (Levitt et al., 2017 ). This, in turn, can be detrimental to the field (Nind et al., 2015 ), journal publication (Ketchen et al., 2008 ; Ezeh et al., 2010 ), and attempts to address public social issues through psychological research (Dweck, 2017 ). This is especially important given the now well-known replication crisis the field is facing (Earp and Trafimow, 2015 ; Hengartner, 2018 ).

Due to this lack of clarity on method use and the potential impact of inept use of research methods, the aim of this study was to explore the use of research methods in the field of psychology through a review of journal publications. Chaichanasakul et al. ( 2011 ) identify reviewing articles as the opportunity to examine the development, growth and progress of a research area and overall quality of a journal. Studies such as Lee et al. ( 1999 ) as well as Bluhm et al. ( 2011 ) review of qualitative methods has attempted to synthesis the use of research methods and indicated the growth of qualitative research in American and European journals. Research has also focused on the use of research methods in specific sub-disciplines of psychology, for example, in the field of Industrial and Organisational psychology Coetzee and Van Zyl ( 2014 ) found that South African publications tend to consist of cross-sectional quantitative research methods with underrepresented longitudinal studies. Qualitative studies were found to make up 21% of the articles published from 1995 to 2015 in a similar study by O'Neil and Koekemoer ( 2016 ). Other methods in health psychology, such as Mixed methods research have also been reportedly growing in popularity (O'Cathain, 2009 ).

A broad overview of the use of research methods in the field of psychology as a whole is however, not available in the literature. Therefore, our research focused on answering what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in practice (i.e., journal publications) in order to provide a general perspective of method used in psychology publication. We synthesised the collected data into the following format: research topic [areas of scientific discourse in a field or the current needs of a population (Bittermann and Fischer, 2018 )], method [data-gathering tools (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 )], sampling [elements chosen from a population to partake in research (Ritchie et al., 2009 )], data collection [techniques and research strategy (Maree, 2016 )], and data analysis [discovering information by examining bodies of data (Ktepi, 2016 )]. A systematised review of recent articles (2013 to 2017) collected from five different journals in the field of psychological research was conducted.

Grant and Booth ( 2009 ) describe systematised reviews as the review of choice for post-graduate studies, which is employed using some elements of a systematic review and seldom more than one or two databases to catalogue studies after a comprehensive literature search. The aspects used in this systematised review that are similar to that of a systematic review were a full search within the chosen database and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ).

Sample sizes and timelines vary in systematised reviews (see Lowe and Moore, 2014 ; Pericall and Taylor, 2014 ; Barr-Walker, 2017 ). With no clear parameters identified in the literature (see Grant and Booth, 2009 ), the sample size of this study was determined by the purpose of the sample (Strydom, 2011 ), and time and cost constraints (Maree and Pietersen, 2016 ). Thus, a non-probability purposive sample (Ritchie et al., 2009 ) of the top five psychology journals from 2013 to 2017 was included in this research study. Per Lee ( 2015 ) American Psychological Association (APA) recommends the use of the most up-to-date sources for data collection with consideration of the context of the research study. As this research study focused on the most recent trends in research methods used in the broad field of psychology, the identified time frame was deemed appropriate.

Psychology journals were only included if they formed part of the top five English journals in the miscellaneous psychology domain of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). The Scimago Journal and Country Rank provides a yearly updated list of publicly accessible journal and country-specific indicators derived from the Scopus® database (Scopus, 2017b ) by means of the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator developed by Scimago from the algorithm Google PageRank™ (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). Scopus is the largest global database of abstracts and citations from peer-reviewed journals (Scopus, 2017a ). Reasons for the development of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank list was to allow researchers to assess scientific domains, compare country rankings, and compare and analyse journals (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ), which supported the aim of this research study. Additionally, the goals of the journals had to focus on topics in psychology in general with no preference to specific research methods and have full-text access to articles.

The following list of top five journals in 2018 fell within the abovementioned inclusion criteria (1) Australian Journal of Psychology, (2) British Journal of Psychology, (3) Europe's Journal of Psychology, (4) International Journal of Psychology and lastly the (5) Journal of Psychology Applied and Interdisciplinary.

Journals were excluded from this systematised review if no full-text versions of their articles were available, if journals explicitly stated a publication preference for certain research methods, or if the journal only published articles in a specific discipline of psychological research (for example, industrial psychology, clinical psychology etc.).

The researchers followed a procedure (see Figure 1 ) adapted from that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) for systematised reviews. Data collection and categorisation commenced on 4 December 2017 and continued until 30 June 2019. All the data was systematically collected and coded manually (Grant and Booth, 2009 ) with an independent person acting as co-coder. Codes of interest included the research topic, method used, the design used, sampling method, and methodology (the method used for data collection and data analysis). These codes were derived from the wording in each article. Themes were created based on the derived codes and checked by the co-coder. Lastly, these themes were catalogued into a table as per the systematised review design.

Systematised review procedure.

According to Johnston et al. ( 2019 ), “literature screening, selection, and data extraction/analyses” (p. 7) are specifically tailored to the aim of a review. Therefore, the steps followed in a systematic review must be reported in a comprehensive and transparent manner. The chosen systematised design adhered to the rigour expected from systematic reviews with regard to full search and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). The rigorous application of the systematic review is, therefore discussed in relation to these two elements.

Firstly, to ensure a comprehensive search, this research study promoted review transparency by following a clear protocol outlined according to each review stage before collecting data (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This protocol was similar to that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) and approved by three research committees/stakeholders and the researchers (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The eligibility criteria for article inclusion was based on the research question and clearly stated, and the process of inclusion was recorded on an electronic spreadsheet to create an evidence trail (Bandara et al., 2015 ; Johnston et al., 2019 ). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are a popular tool for review studies and can increase the rigour of the review process (Bandara et al., 2015 ). Screening for appropriate articles for inclusion forms an integral part of a systematic review process (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This step was applied to two aspects of this research study: the choice of eligible journals and articles to be included. Suitable journals were selected by the first author and reviewed by the second and third authors. Initially, all articles from the chosen journals were included. Then, by process of elimination, those irrelevant to the research aim, i.e., interview articles or discussions etc., were excluded.

To ensure rigourous data extraction, data was first extracted by one reviewer, and an independent person verified the results for completeness and accuracy (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The research question served as a guide for efficient, organised data extraction (Johnston et al., 2019 ). Data was categorised according to the codes of interest, along with article identifiers for audit trails such as authors, title and aims of articles. The categorised data was based on the aim of the review (Johnston et al., 2019 ) and synthesised in tabular form under methods used, how these methods were used, and for what topics in the field of psychology.

The initial search produced a total of 1,145 articles from the 5 journals identified. Inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in a final sample of 999 articles ( Figure 2 ). Articles were co-coded into 84 codes, from which 10 themes were derived ( Table 1 ).

Journal article frequency.

Codes used to form themes (research topics).

These 10 themes represent the topic section of our research question ( Figure 3 ). All these topics except, for the final one, psychological practice , were found to concur with the research areas in psychology as identified by Weiten ( 2010 ). These research areas were chosen to represent the derived codes as they provided broad definitions that allowed for clear, concise categorisation of the vast amount of data. Article codes were categorised under particular themes/topics if they adhered to the research area definitions created by Weiten ( 2010 ). It is important to note that these areas of research do not refer to specific disciplines in psychology, such as industrial psychology; but to broader fields that may encompass sub-interests of these disciplines.

Topic frequency (international sample).

In the case of developmental psychology , researchers conduct research into human development from childhood to old age. Social psychology includes research on behaviour governed by social drivers. Researchers in the field of educational psychology study how people learn and the best way to teach them. Health psychology aims to determine the effect of psychological factors on physiological health. Physiological psychology , on the other hand, looks at the influence of physiological aspects on behaviour. Experimental psychology is not the only theme that uses experimental research and focuses on the traditional core topics of psychology (for example, sensation). Cognitive psychology studies the higher mental processes. Psychometrics is concerned with measuring capacity or behaviour. Personality research aims to assess and describe consistency in human behaviour (Weiten, 2010 ). The final theme of psychological practice refers to the experiences, techniques, and interventions employed by practitioners, researchers, and academia in the field of psychology.

Articles under these themes were further subdivided into methodologies: method, sampling, design, data collection, and data analysis. The categorisation was based on information stated in the articles and not inferred by the researchers. Data were compiled into two sets of results presented in this article. The first set addresses the aim of this study from the perspective of the topics identified. The second set of results represents a broad overview of the results from the perspective of the methodology employed. The second set of results are discussed in this article, while the first set is presented in table format. The discussion thus provides a broad overview of methods use in psychology (across all themes), while the table format provides readers with in-depth insight into methods used in the individual themes identified. We believe that presenting the data from both perspectives allow readers a broad understanding of the results. Due a large amount of information that made up our results, we followed Cichocka and Jost ( 2014 ) in simplifying our results. Please note that the numbers indicated in the table in terms of methodology differ from the total number of articles. Some articles employed more than one method/sampling technique/design/data collection method/data analysis in their studies.

What follows is the results for what methods are used, how these methods are used, and which topics in psychology they are applied to . Percentages are reported to the second decimal in order to highlight small differences in the occurrence of methodology.

Firstly, with regard to the research methods used, our results show that researchers are more likely to use quantitative research methods (90.22%) compared to all other research methods. Qualitative research was the second most common research method but only made up about 4.79% of the general method usage. Reviews occurred almost as much as qualitative studies (3.91%), as the third most popular method. Mixed-methods research studies (0.98%) occurred across most themes, whereas multi-method research was indicated in only one study and amounted to 0.10% of the methods identified. The specific use of each method in the topics identified is shown in Table 2 and Figure 4 .

Research methods in psychology.

Research method frequency in topics.

Secondly, in the case of how these research methods are employed , our study indicated the following.

Sampling −78.34% of the studies in the collected articles did not specify a sampling method. From the remainder of the studies, 13 types of sampling methods were identified. These sampling methods included broad categorisation of a sample as, for example, a probability or non-probability sample. General samples of convenience were the methods most likely to be applied (10.34%), followed by random sampling (3.51%), snowball sampling (2.73%), and purposive (1.37%) and cluster sampling (1.27%). The remainder of the sampling methods occurred to a more limited extent (0–1.0%). See Table 3 and Figure 5 for sampling methods employed in each topic.

Sampling use in the field of psychology.

Sampling method frequency in topics.

Designs were categorised based on the articles' statement thereof. Therefore, it is important to note that, in the case of quantitative studies, non-experimental designs (25.55%) were often indicated due to a lack of experiments and any other indication of design, which, according to Laher ( 2016 ), is a reasonable categorisation. Non-experimental designs should thus be compared with experimental designs only in the description of data, as it could include the use of correlational/cross-sectional designs, which were not overtly stated by the authors. For the remainder of the research methods, “not stated” (7.12%) was assigned to articles without design types indicated.

From the 36 identified designs the most popular designs were cross-sectional (23.17%) and experimental (25.64%), which concurred with the high number of quantitative studies. Longitudinal studies (3.80%), the third most popular design, was used in both quantitative and qualitative studies. Qualitative designs consisted of ethnography (0.38%), interpretative phenomenological designs/phenomenology (0.28%), as well as narrative designs (0.28%). Studies that employed the review method were mostly categorised as “not stated,” with the most often stated review designs being systematic reviews (0.57%). The few mixed method studies employed exploratory, explanatory (0.09%), and concurrent designs (0.19%), with some studies referring to separate designs for the qualitative and quantitative methods. The one study that identified itself as a multi-method study used a longitudinal design. Please see how these designs were employed in each specific topic in Table 4 , Figure 6 .

Design use in the field of psychology.

Design frequency in topics.

Data collection and analysis —data collection included 30 methods, with the data collection method most often employed being questionnaires (57.84%). The experimental task (16.56%) was the second most preferred collection method, which included established or unique tasks designed by the researchers. Cognitive ability tests (6.84%) were also regularly used along with various forms of interviewing (7.66%). Table 5 and Figure 7 represent data collection use in the various topics. Data analysis consisted of 3,857 occurrences of data analysis categorised into ±188 various data analysis techniques shown in Table 6 and Figures 1 – 7 . Descriptive statistics were the most commonly used (23.49%) along with correlational analysis (17.19%). When using a qualitative method, researchers generally employed thematic analysis (0.52%) or different forms of analysis that led to coding and the creation of themes. Review studies presented few data analysis methods, with most studies categorising their results. Mixed method and multi-method studies followed the analysis methods identified for the qualitative and quantitative studies included.

Data collection in the field of psychology.

Data collection frequency in topics.

Data analysis in the field of psychology.

Results of the topics researched in psychology can be seen in the tables, as previously stated in this article. It is noteworthy that, of the 10 topics, social psychology accounted for 43.54% of the studies, with cognitive psychology the second most popular research topic at 16.92%. The remainder of the topics only occurred in 4.0–7.0% of the articles considered. A list of the included 999 articles is available under the section “View Articles” on the following website: https://methodgarden.xtrapolate.io/ . This website was created by Scholtz et al. ( 2019 ) to visually present a research framework based on this Article's results.

This systematised review categorised full-length articles from five international journals across the span of 5 years to provide insight into the use of research methods in the field of psychology. Results indicated what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) in the included sample of articles. The results should be seen as providing insight into method use and by no means a comprehensive representation of the aforementioned aim due to the limited sample. To our knowledge, this is the first research study to address this topic in this manner. Our discussion attempts to promote a productive way forward in terms of the key results for method use in psychology, especially in the field of academia (Holloway, 2008 ).

With regard to the methods used, our data stayed true to literature, finding only common research methods (Grant and Booth, 2009 ; Maree, 2016 ) that varied in the degree to which they were employed. Quantitative research was found to be the most popular method, as indicated by literature (Breen and Darlaston-Jones, 2010 ; Counsell and Harlow, 2017 ) and previous studies in specific areas of psychology (see Coetzee and Van Zyl, 2014 ). Its long history as the first research method (Leech et al., 2007 ) in the field of psychology as well as researchers' current application of mathematical approaches in their studies (Toomela, 2010 ) might contribute to its popularity today. Whatever the case may be, our results show that, despite the growth in qualitative research (Demuth, 2015 ; Smith and McGannon, 2018 ), quantitative research remains the first choice for article publication in these journals. Despite the included journals indicating openness to articles that apply any research methods. This finding may be due to qualitative research still being seen as a new method (Burman and Whelan, 2011 ) or reviewers' standards being higher for qualitative studies (Bluhm et al., 2011 ). Future research is encouraged into the possible biasness in publication of research methods, additionally further investigation with a different sample into the proclaimed growth of qualitative research may also provide different results.

Review studies were found to surpass that of multi-method and mixed method studies. To this effect Grant and Booth ( 2009 ), state that the increased awareness, journal contribution calls as well as its efficiency in procuring research funds all promote the popularity of reviews. The low frequency of mixed method studies contradicts the view in literature that it's the third most utilised research method (Tashakkori and Teddlie's, 2003 ). Its' low occurrence in this sample could be due to opposing views on mixing methods (Gunasekare, 2015 ) or that authors prefer publishing in mixed method journals, when using this method, or its relative novelty (Ivankova et al., 2016 ). Despite its low occurrence, the application of the mixed methods design in articles was methodologically clear in all cases which were not the case for the remainder of research methods.

Additionally, a substantial number of studies used a combination of methodologies that are not mixed or multi-method studies. Perceived fixed boundaries are according to literature often set aside, as confirmed by this result, in order to investigate the aim of a study, which could create a new and helpful way of understanding the world (Gunasekare, 2015 ). According to Toomela ( 2010 ), this is not unheard of and could be considered a form of “structural systemic science,” as in the case of qualitative methodology (observation) applied in quantitative studies (experimental design) for example. Based on this result, further research into this phenomenon as well as its implications for research methods such as multi and mixed methods is recommended.

Discerning how these research methods were applied, presented some difficulty. In the case of sampling, most studies—regardless of method—did mention some form of inclusion and exclusion criteria, but no definite sampling method. This result, along with the fact that samples often consisted of students from the researchers' own academic institutions, can contribute to literature and debates among academics (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ; Laher, 2016 ). Samples of convenience and students as participants especially raise questions about the generalisability and applicability of results (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ). This is because attention to sampling is important as inappropriate sampling can debilitate the legitimacy of interpretations (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2017 ). Future investigation into the possible implications of this reported popular use of convenience samples for the field of psychology as well as the reason for this use could provide interesting insight, and is encouraged by this study.

Additionally, and this is indicated in Table 6 , articles seldom report the research designs used, which highlights the pressing aspect of the lack of rigour in the included sample. Rigour with regards to the applied empirical method is imperative in promoting psychology as a science (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). Omitting parts of the research process in publication when it could have been used to inform others' research skills should be questioned, and the influence on the process of replicating results should be considered. Publications are often rejected due to a lack of rigour in the applied method and designs (Fonseca, 2013 ; Laher, 2016 ), calling for increased clarity and knowledge of method application. Replication is a critical part of any field of scientific research and requires the “complete articulation” of the study methods used (Drotar, 2010 , p. 804). The lack of thorough description could be explained by the requirements of certain journals to only report on certain aspects of a research process, especially with regard to the applied design (Laher, 20). However, naming aspects such as sampling and designs, is a requirement according to the APA's Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (Appelbaum et al., 2018 ). With very little information on how a study was conducted, authors lose a valuable opportunity to enhance research validity, enrich the knowledge of others, and contribute to the growth of psychology and methodology as a whole. In the case of this research study, it also restricted our results to only reported samples and designs, which indicated a preference for certain designs, such as cross-sectional designs for quantitative studies.

Data collection and analysis were for the most part clearly stated. A key result was the versatile use of questionnaires. Researchers would apply a questionnaire in various ways, for example in questionnaire interviews, online surveys, and written questionnaires across most research methods. This may highlight a trend for future research.

With regard to the topics these methods were employed for, our research study found a new field named “psychological practice.” This result may show the growing consciousness of researchers as part of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003 ), psychological practice, and knowledge generation. The most popular of these topics was social psychology, which is generously covered in journals and by learning societies, as testaments of the institutional support and richness social psychology has in the field of psychology (Chryssochoou, 2015 ). The APA's perspective on 2018 trends in psychology also identifies an increased amount of psychology focus on how social determinants are influencing people's health (Deangelis, 2017 ).

This study was not without limitations and the following should be taken into account. Firstly, this study used a sample of five specific journals to address the aim of the research study, despite general journal aims (as stated on journal websites), this inclusion signified a bias towards the research methods published in these specific journals only and limited generalisability. A broader sample of journals over a different period of time, or a single journal over a longer period of time might provide different results. A second limitation is the use of Excel spreadsheets and an electronic system to log articles, which was a manual process and therefore left room for error (Bandara et al., 2015 ). To address this potential issue, co-coding was performed to reduce error. Lastly, this article categorised data based on the information presented in the article sample; there was no interpretation of what methodology could have been applied or whether the methods stated adhered to the criteria for the methods used. Thus, a large number of articles that did not clearly indicate a research method or design could influence the results of this review. However, this in itself was also a noteworthy result. Future research could review research methods of a broader sample of journals with an interpretive review tool that increases rigour. Additionally, the authors also encourage the future use of systematised review designs as a way to promote a concise procedure in applying this design.

Our research study presented the use of research methods for published articles in the field of psychology as well as recommendations for future research based on these results. Insight into the complex questions identified in literature, regarding what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) was gained. This sample preferred quantitative methods, used convenience sampling and presented a lack of rigorous accounts for the remaining methodologies. All methodologies that were clearly indicated in the sample were tabulated to allow researchers insight into the general use of methods and not only the most frequently used methods. The lack of rigorous account of research methods in articles was represented in-depth for each step in the research process and can be of vital importance to address the current replication crisis within the field of psychology. Recommendations for future research aimed to motivate research into the practical implications of the results for psychology, for example, publication bias and the use of convenience samples.

Ethics Statement

This study was cleared by the North-West University Health Research Ethics Committee: NWU-00115-17-S1.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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5 Important Psychologist Skills

If you are passionate about helping others and are fascinated by what makes people tick, psychology can be the right career . Before deciding to pursue a degree in psychology, it’s worthwhile to understand the mix of psychological skills required for achieving the best patient outcomes.  

Psychologists apply these skills when working with patients and researching human behavior, developing their expertise through education, clinical training, and experience gained in their careers.  

Many aspiring psychologists start down this challenging, rewarding career path by earning an online bachelor’s degree in psychology. Modern programs allow them to focus on areas of interest, including concentrations in human services and child and adolescent psychology .   

5 Essential Psychologist Skills

The following skills significantly influence how effectively a psychologist helps patients manage behavioral issues. Honing these attributes can make good psychologists great.  

Communication Skills

While communication is essential in every career, it’s critical to success as a psychologist. Communicating with empathy and compassion is imperative for clinical psychologists working with individuals and groups. For research psychologists, clear communication is essential in helping stakeholders understand their findings.  

Research Skills

Research is critical in psychology. Some psychologists, typically those with a doctoral degree, conduct experiments or surveys based on sound research principles. Others apply past research to treating patients and need to know how and where to find relevant and reliable research information.  

Whether in research or working with patients, results can often take years. Given that reality, patience is a key psychological skill. Psychologists must stay motivated even when results aren’t immediately apparent. Research shows that waiting for things results in a happier outlook over time. Perseverance in one’s career can lead to emotional wellness and improvements in optimism, self-esteem, and self-acceptance. Patience helps psychologists stay resilient through the inevitable ups and downs of the profession.  

Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving

The most successful psychologists possess critical thinking skills allowing them to solve problems better. They learn and use alternative strategies following patient needs. They also plan research to account for common challenges that could hinder their work moving forward.  

Psychologists have an enormous responsibility. They can change people’s lives and frequently deal with people at their most vulnerable. A strong ethical code is essential to ensure the safety and well-being of patients. Psychologists also must build research on a strong ethical foundation to achieve unbiased, useful results.  

Do You Have These Psychologist Skills?   

Motivated individuals who possess these psychologist skills have an excellent opportunity to conduct meaningful research and improve patient outcomes. Touro University Worldwide offers 100% online psychology programs that allow professional psychologists to sharpen their skills and grow their expertise.  

The TUW Bachelor of Psychology program allows students to specialize in various concentrations.  

• Industrial/Organizational Psychology  
• Elementary Education  
• Secondary Education  
• Special Education  
• Human Services  
• Child and Adolescent Psychology  
• Forensic Psychology  

TUW also offers a Master of Arts in Psychology with concentrations in Media Psychology, Educational Psychology, Health Psychology, and Forensic Psychology.   

These degrees do not lead to any form of licensure or certification, although the acquired skills and knowledge help psychologists improve at their jobs. Students can further pursue a doctoral degree to become licensed psychologists from an accredited clinical psychology program.  

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Skills of a Psychology Major

This article retrieved from the APA web site and was originally published in the 1997 Monitor

The distinctive skills of a psychology graduate Securing a good job requires knowing what skills you have to offer.

By Nicky Hayes, PhD

T he following excerpt from the European Psychologist provides a list of the skills psychology students develop through their training—a list they can use to better market themselves.

Psychology students' general orientation towards psychology usually reflects the orientation of the staff in their department, and of psychology as practiced in their country. But despite differences in the kind of information students receive, there is a great deal that psychology graduates have in common. The study of psychology, in itself, produces a particular type of awareness and some core knowledge that is shared by most, if not all, psychologists. In the list that follows, I have attempted to identify some of that shared awareness, by naming 13 different types of skill or knowledge that a psychology student is likely to acquire by graduation . One of the important factors that makes psychology special is not the psychological skills themselves, which are often relevant to other disciplines as well, nor the specific items of knowledge. It is the sheer number of skills and range of knowledge that makes psychology special. Psychology is distinctive in that it equips its graduates with an extremely rich and diverse portfolio—providing a variety of forms of expertise, which are found in few other disciplines and which can equip psychology graduates to undertake many different types of work.

• Literacy Psychology graduates are highly literate and, moreover, have been trained to write in more than one literacy format. Through their coursework, they become accustomed to writing essays, which allow them to explore issues in detail; but they are also familiarized with the techniques of concise writing within a pre-set format (a skill much valued in commercial and business worlds) as they write up practical research reports.
• Numeracy Psychology graduates are also highly numerate. They are trained to interpret data summaries and to understand probability statements, and they become familiar with a wide range of statistical procedures and processes. When faced with numerical information, they are more likely to respond by seeking to discover what the numbers imply than by avoiding them altogether. By contrast, it is relatively uncommon for degree courses in other disciplines to produce graduates who are simultaneously literate and numerate, yet the psychology graduate is expected to be both.
• Computer literacy Psychology graduates are also generally computer literate. They are familiar with using computers, and can select and learn relevant packages for the tasks they are required to carry out. While relatively few psychology graduates are familiar with computer programming, computer use is required in the modern world, and it is a rare psychology graduate who has not had some training in this area, at the very least in word-processing and statistical analysis.
• Information-finding skills It is sometimes more useful to know where information can be found than to have memorized that information directly, particularly in areas that are developing and changing over time. Undertaking a psychology degree involves a considerable amount of information-finding skill. Psychology students are trained to search through library book collections, journals, CD-ROM databases and a range of other ways of obtaining information. Knowing how to look for information on a particular topic or general area isn't a skill needed for every job, but it is always one worth having.
• Research skills Psychology students are explicitly trained in research methods, and this training spans a range of different techniques. Typically, these include experimental and observational methods, survey and sampling techniques, and more recently, qualitative analysis. Together, these amount to considerable expertise in gathering systematic information about human experience or behavior-expertise that is useful in any number of different fields.
• Measurement skills Measurement skills go hand-in-hand with research skills, and psychology graduates are thoroughly trained in these as well. Through a typical research-methods course, a psychology student learns how to operationalize the measurement of complex process, the principles of psychometric measurement, questionnaire design and how to develop other measurement tools. These skills are familiar to psychology graduates, and are distinctly useful in many walks of life, but they are not easy skills to acquire without explicit training.
• Environmental awareness Knowing how someone's environment can influence their behavior helps us to understand people at work, at home, in education and at leisure. Psychology graduates are familiar with this type of knowledge in many guises, from traditional stimulus-response perspectives to the direct study of the environment, including such phenomena as nonverbal signaling, habit formation and social appropriateness. Many nonpsychologists do not particularly notice environmental factors, yet few psychology graduates are unaware of their importance.
• Interpersonal awareness Psychology students also learn about the mechanisms of social communication and the potential sources of interpersonal conflict. This is not the same as being socially skilled oneself, of course, although it can contribute to it. But such awareness can make a considerable difference to someone dealing with everyday interpersonal problems. Being aware, too, of the sources of conflict or misunderstanding can sometimes result in the ability to perceive ways through difficulties that would not be readily apparent without such knowledge.
• Problem-solving skills From their very first laboratory class, psychology graduates are systematically trained in problem-solving skills. The ability to tackle a range of different types of problems is probably the most distinctive characteristic of the psychology graduate. Psychology graduates learn how to apply different strategies and approaches to understanding problems, and how to identify the practical steps to implement a solution. They can operate on a macro-level, applying different perspectives or levels of analysis to the problem, or at a more basic level in terms of choosing appropriate methods and techniques. It is a valuable skill, and one that psychologists should be more aware of.
• Critical evaluation Psychology students are also explicitly trained in critical evaluation, an emphasis that appears to be particularly strong in Europe. This set of cognitive skills can be viewed as direct training in skepticism: Students are expected to appraise whether evidence for a phenomenon is really what it appears to be; to evaluate, critically, the quality of an argument; to identify the shortcomings and pitfalls of a particular line of action; and to anticipate problems or difficulties. These skills are often devalued by psychology graduates, who sometimes complain that everything that they have learned seems to be negative, yet that same skepticism can be extremely useful to them in their later working life.
• Perspectives On the surface, the ability to examine issues from multiple points of view or to explore phenomena using different schools of thought appears to be a relatively esoteric one. However, it is a skill that can be surprisingly useful in many different contexts. The ability to identify different ideologies or paradigms can clarify social issues and give us a better awareness of the implications of particular arguments or positions. Psychology graduates are directly trained in this skill, but they often do not realize how valuable it can be.
• Higher-order analysis Psychology graduates are skilled at spotting recurrent patterns in human activity, or noticing similarities between situations that seem on the surface to be quite different. This type of higher-order analysis involves being able to extract general principles rather than becoming bogged down with the details of the immediate situation. The psychology student's experience of sifting through vast quantities of experimental evidence and interpreting it in terms of schools of thought and other general principles provides useful training in this skill.
• Pragmatism It does not take much exposure to psychological methodology for psychology students to realize they are never going to achieve the perfect experiment, and that they will simply have to do the best they can with what is practical. Their experiences in this respect tend to give the psychology graduate a pragmatic approach to work and problem-solving: a valuable skill, and one that is not particularly common.

It will be apparent, I think, that this portfolio of skills is one that can be valuable for many types of work apart from the profession of psychology itself. But this is not the whole story. As John Radford argues, psychology provides its students with an extensive education, training them in thinking and reasoning skills, and encouraging the student to explore a broad range of ideas and assumptions. In the old-fashioned sense, studying psychology can be seen as a liberal education, as well as a modern training. It is far more than simply a skill-based training for professional work—it is an education in its own right. Unfortunately, psychologists themselves often fail to recognize what skills they actually have, or find it very difficult to articulate what these are. As sports psychologists have long recognized, expertise is not a primarily conscious process: It involves deeply learned, automated routines, which come into play at the appropriate times without conscious decision-making on the part of the person concerned. Psychological knowledge has a tendency to become very deeply internalized and once this has happened, it is hard for an individual psychologist to recognize that knowledge, and to realize when they are applying it.

Undertaking a psychology degree can generate distinctive approaches to social and interpersonal issues, yet many psychology graduates leave their courses believing they are no more perceptive or knowledgeable than other people. They do not feel knowledgeable, partly because their knowledge is automatized rather than conscious, and partly because one of the things they have learned is not to accept 'knowledge' without question. On the other hand, a psychology graduate venturing into the outside world is often surprised at how other people appear to overlook the obvious. The style of thinking that one acquires while studying for a psychology degree may feel intuitively obvious, but it actually involves a long and arduous process of discarding prior assumptions. And those automatized skills are a vital contribution to the psychologist's problem-solving abilities. Becoming aware of what we have learned through a psychology degree is made even more difficult by the way that many of the cognitive skills that we acquire from the study of psychology are negative rather than positive, such as the skill of not immediately jumping to conclusions, and of reserving judgment about alternative possibilities. Psychology students quickly learn that a single event can be usefully conceptualized in several alternative ways, and that there may be multiple psychological origins for a given problem. This is a valuable cognitive skill, but it is one that is relatively uncommon in lay cognition. A psychology degree, then, is actually rather special. Psychology integrates areas of knowledge that span the arts and the sciences, and in the process it provides students with a liberal education, as well as a particularly wide range of practical and professional skills. The automatized skills that psychology provides are often difficult to articulate, but they are nonetheless significant. It would be not a bad thing, in my view, if some serious psychological research were to be devoted to the identification and measurement of these distinctive but elusive skills.

Nicky Hayes, PhD, is Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Huddersfield, United Kingdom, and a Fellow of the British Psychological Society. She specializes in the teaching and learning of psychology. Her current research is on student revision practices and social representations in organizations.

This article was excerpted from the June 1996 issue of the European Psychologist (Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 130_34), published by Hogrefe & Huber Publishers. To subscribe to the European Psychologist, contact APA's Subscription Department, (202) 336-5500.

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The skillful psychology student: Skills you will need to succeed in the 21st-Century workplace

The case for developing career skills.

If someone asked you if you use your psychology knowledge in your job, most likely you would say, “No, I’m not using my psychology degree.” Unfortunately, by doing this you risk overlooking the value and preparation that your undergraduate psychology experience provided for your career. You do not have to go into a clinical practitioner (or other “psychology-sounding”) job, or graduate school to make use of the employer-valued skills you developed in order to succeed in any job. Indeed, the key here is to identify, understand, master and strategically highlight to employers the job-related skills you can develop as a psychology student.

The need for the skillful psychology student

The ability to emphasize the generalizable workplace skills that psychology provides has never been more critical. Employers make it abundantly clear that while acquiring academic knowledge is important, it is not enough. The ability of applicants to highlight job-relevant skills often grabs prospective employers’ attention more effectively than a high GPA. As a result, we — as members of APA’s Committee on Associate and Baccalaureate Education 21st-Century Skills task force — created an evidence-based list of the top transferable employer-valued skills that psychology students can develop if they take full advantage of the curricular and extracurricular opportunities their undergraduate educations offer. These are the employer-valued skills that will prepare you for success in the 21st Century workplace regardless of the occupation you enter.

How did we find and organize these skills? 

Employers often spell out the range of skills they want applicants to possess. To assemble a list of the top skills needed to succeed in both the current and future workplace that can be learned in psychology, we searched thousands of online job ads (e.g., Indeed) and O*NET (the world’s most comprehensive database of worker competencies and occupational requirements) for the frequency of skills and attributes derived from APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major (APA, 2013). Ultimately, we identified five basic skill domains with 17 individual skills that are integral to the mission of most undergraduate psychology programs and are key to successful workforce preparation. These skills fall under the domains of:

• Cognitive (e.g., creativity and information management).
• Communication (e.g., active listening and public speaking).
• Personal (e.g., conscientiousness and integrity).
• Social (e.g., collaboration and leadership abilities).
• Technological (e.g., flexibility and familiarity with hardware and software).

For further descriptions of these skills see The Skillful Psychology Student resource page  (PDF, 40KB).

A three-step strategy to prepare for your occupational future

Step one: Become aware of these skill sets so you can have a better appreciation of how your teachers’ class assignments helped you build skills that will prepare you to achieve your future occupational goals. For instance, many research methods classes require group projects whose results can be presented during undergraduate research conferences. Such opportunities provide you with the opportunity to practice and strengthen all five of your skill sets as you collaborate with your peers to create and test hypotheses, create Institutional Review Board protocols that validate your scientific integrity, and demonstrate your public speaking ability with the aid of presentation software such as PowerPoint.

Step two: Work with your academic advisor to choose classes and activities that will enable you to acquire and further strengthen these skillsets, beyond the classes needed to fulfill your basic graduation requirements. For example, given the crucial role of communication skills for job success, consider enrolling in classes such as interpersonal communication and technical writing.

Step three: Learn how to market these skills to potential employers. Following steps one and two will better prepare you for seeking assistance from your career center to help you effectively highlight your skills in the following manner during the job-search process.  

• Incorporate your skills into your resume. For example, to emphasize your personal, cognitive and technological skills you could include, “Able to work independently to conscientiously collect, manage, and statistically analyze large sets of information.”
• Weave your skills into your cover letter. To highlight your social and communication skills, for example, you could include, “I worked as part of a collaborative research team, and I wrote the methods section of our report and presented the results of our study at an undergraduate research conference.”
• Put your skills front and center in your interviews by learning how to highlight them in a clear and compelling elevator pitch to use during job fairs and creating and practicing confident answers to challenging interview questions such as “How did your undergraduate education help you develop the skills needed to succeed in the job for which you are applying?”

Our recommendation is for you to put this three-step plan into action now , not tomorrow, not at the end of this semester, and absolutely not until after you graduate. Just remember that thousands of other psychology students will graduate with you. They all want good jobs too, but until they read this article, you will have the knowledge and a plan they do not yet possess.

American Psychological Association. (2013). APA guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major: Version 2.0 . Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/index .

Appleby, D.C. (2018). Preparing psychology majors to enter the workforce: Then, now, with whom, and how. Teaching of Psychology, 45 (1), 14–23. doi:10.1177/0098628317744944.

About the authors

The superpowers of the psychology major

The Skillful Psychology Student (PDF, 56KB)

Additional resources for undergraduate students