intelligence essay

Psychology Discussion

Essay on intelligence: meaning, theories and distribution.

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Essay on Intelligence: Meaning, Theories and Distribution!

Essay on the Meaning of Intelligence:

Intelligence is understood as the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and give reason effectively and to deal adaptively with the environment. This mental capacity helps him in the task of theoretical as well as practical manipulation of things, objects or events present in his environment in order to adapt or face new challenges and problems in life as successfully as possible.

Intelligence derives from ability to learn and utilize what has been learned in adjusting to new situations and solving new problems. The concept of intelligence owes much to early studies of animal learning. About a century ago, following publications of Darwin’s “Origin of Species”, there was a flurry of interest in the evolution of intelligence and many tests ere devised to measure intelligence in animals ranging from ants to chimpanzees.

These were tests of learning ability. The general procedure was to block a customary access to food or to introduce a disturbing element from which escape was possible. Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.

Intelligence represents a focal point for psychologists, they intend to understand how people are able to adopt their behaviour to the environment in which they live. It also represents a key aspect of how individuals differ from one another in the way in which they learn about and understand the world. Psychological tests are used to measure individual differences that exist among people in abilities, aptitudes, interests and aspect of personality.

Essay on the Definition of Intelligence:

“An individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking”.

2. Thorndike:

Intelligence as “the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact”.

“Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions”.

4. Wechster:

“Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges”.

5. Woodworth and Marqis:

“Intelligence means intellect put to use. It is the use of intellectual abilities for handling a situation or accomplishing any task”.

Intelligence has three common aspects:

1. Practical problem:

Solving abilities such as reasoning logically, seeing all sides of a problem and open mindedness.

2. Verbal abilities:

Such as appropriate communication skills and well-practiced reading skills.

3. Social intelligence:

Such as sensitivity to social cues, interest in one’s surroun­dings, and a concern for important norms (Sternberg 1981).

Essay on the Theories of Intelligence :

1. Factor theory of intelligence

2. Cognitive models process-oriented theories.

1. Factor Theory :

1. Theorists who have studied the organization of mental ability.

2. Primary interest is in identifying the factor of factors which constitute intelligence.

3. Intelligence is a single characteristic, or it is a collection of specific distinguishable abilities.

4. A statistical technique known as factor analysis is used.

2. G-Factor Theory:

1. British psychologist Charles Spearman (1921) proposed that a broad general intelligence (G) factor lay beneath the surface.

2. Spearman noted that a number of different cognitive tasks and intellectual measures tend to be correlated with one another that is people who score high on one hand tend to score high on the others as well.

3. Using factor analysis, he found a single common factor G shared by various tests.

4. He said each individual’s intellectual task taps both general intelligence or some other abilities specific for the particular task.

For example, an arithmetic test might tap both G and A specific mathematical abilities.

5. Spearman’s views are called as factor theory—Intelligence tests that yield a single score such as an IQ.

Spearman’s two-factor theory :

This theory was advocated by Spearman. According to him every different intellectual activity involves a general factor ‘g’ which is shared with all intellectual activities and a specific factors which it shares with none.

In this way, he suggested that there is something which night be called general intelligence—a sort of general mental energy running through all different tasks but in addition to this general factor there are specific abilities which make an individual able to deal with particular kinds of problems.

For example, g + s/1 + s/2 + s/3 + s/4 + … = A

The factor g will enter in all specific activities. The total ability or intelligence of such an individual is symbolized as A.

It has been criticized on various grounds and the main reasons are:

1. According to this theory each job requires some specific abilities. This view was not proper as it implied that there was nothing common in the jobs except a general factor and professions such as those of nurses, compounders and doctors could not be put in a group.

2. Spearman said that there are only two factors expressing intelligence but as we have seen above there are not only two but also several factors.

Multifactor Theories :

1. In contrast to Spearman, several theories have concluded that intelligence has multiple components.

2. Most influential multifactor theories are of LL Thurstone and JP Guilford.

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities :

Thurstone proposed that intelligence involves a number of distinct primary mental abilities. He believed that assessment of a person’s intelligence profile required measurement of all seven abilities.

Guilford’s Model of Intelligence:

According to Guilford’s model there are three distinct functions of intelligence; operations, content, and product. Each of these general functions can be further broken down to create a three dimensional model containing 150 different mental functions.

Each of these factors or functions is represented by a cell in the cube and in some combinations of these three dimensions:

(i) Five kinds of operations,

(ii) Six kinds of products and

(iii) Five kinds of contents.

i.e. 5 x 6 x 5 or 150 factors of intelligence are represented.

Each factor is represented by a cell in the cube and in some combination of these dimensions:

1. Five kinds of operation

2. Six kinds of products

3. Four kinds of contents (figural, symbolic, semantic and behavioural), i.e. 5 x 6 x 4 = 120 factors of intelligence are represented.

Hierarchical Theory (PE Vernon) :

There seems to be some truth in both G factor theory and those theories that propose multiple factors. We can identify some ability factors that are relatively independent of one another, but when we do usually find some significant relations among the factors indicating that they share some sort of general intelligence factors.

Consequently, some (for example, Vernon 1950) have proposed that elements of G factor theory and the multifactor theories be combined to form a hierarchical theory. In such a theory intelligence is pictured as a sort of pyramid. At the top of the pyramid in G general intelligence which shows up in virtually all kinds of intellectual activity underneath it are several moderately specific ability factors like Thurstone’s primary mental ability.

At the bottom of the pyramid there are a larger number of highly specific abilities, similar to Spearman’s factors abilities that may come into play on one particular task. This hierarchical theory borrows from several factor theories to form a multilayered view of intelligence.

Process-Oriented Theories of Intelligence :

The factor theories of intelligence attempt to find the component parts of intelligence and how these parts fit together. An alternative approach to understanding intelligence is to focus on intellectual like pattern of thinking the people use when they have reason and solve problems.

These theories speak of cognition and cognitive processes rather than intelligence, cognitive psychologists use an information processing approach. They do not focus on the structure of intelligence or its underlying content of dimensions. Instead, they examine the processes involved in producing intelligent behaviour.

They are interested in how people go about solving problems and figuring out answers than in how many right answers people get, finally the process-oriented theories intend to focus on the development of intellectual processes like how the process change as individual mature.

1. Piaget’s Theory :

Jean Piaget (1970) is a process theorist. He has given us the stage theory of cognitive development, the stages of cognitive growth according to Piaget are:

1. Sensorimotor stage (first 2 years)

2. Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years)

3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)

4. Formal operational stage (12 years onwards).

a. Thinking abstractly.

b. Hypothetical thinking:

Thinking about how things might be, if certain changes took place.

c. Deduction and induction:

Hypothetical and abstract thinking make sophisticated deduction and induction possible.

Deduction is rather reasoning from abstract general principles to specific hypotheses that follow from the principles.

Inductive thinking is the process of observing a number of specific events or instances and inferring an abstract, general principle to explain those instances.

d. Inter-propositional logic:

Formal operations involve the ability to judge whether propositions are logically connected to one another.

e. Reflective thinking:

The process of evaluating or testing your own reasoning. In Piaget’s views, intelligence is an adoptive process that involves an interplay of biological interaction with the environment. He views intellectual development as an evolution of cognitive processes such as understanding the laws of nature, the principles of grammar and mathematical rules.

2. Bruner’s Theory :

Yeroms Bruner (1973) is a process theorist who sees intellectual developments as a growing reliance on internal representation, bodies according to Bruner have highly action-oriented form of intelligence they “know” an object only to the extent that they can act on it. Young children know things by perceiving them and are consequently strongly influenced by the vivid perceptual characteristics of objects and events.

Elder children and adolescents know things internally and symbolically, this means that they are able to devise internal symbols or representations of objects and actions and have these mental images in mind. Bruner is interested in how these growing abilities are influenced by the environment especially by the rewards and punishments people receive for using particular intellectual skills in particular ways.

3. Information-Processing Theories :

These theories break down intelligence into various basic skills that people employ to take information, process it, and then use it to reason and solve problems. By breaking tasks and problems into their component parts and identifying the nature and speed of problem-solving processes, researchers have found out differences between those who score lower. Take for example, a college students who is asked to solve the following analogy problem.

Lawyer is to client as doctor is to:

(a) Patient or

(b) Medicine.

According to Sternberg’s theory a student presented with this analogy tends to move through a series of stages in attempting to reach a solution.

First she will encode to initial information this means providing each item with identifying these cues. These cues help to retrieve relevant information from long- term memory. For example, she may think of lawyer in terms of law school, a court room.

Next she will infer any possible relationship that a client employs a lawyer or that a lawyer gives service to a client. Once she has inferred the relationship she must map the higher order relationship between the first half of the analogy and the second half, both deal with people who provide professional services for a fee.

The important stage which comes next is application. Here she comes out with answer by comparing the relationship she has inferred. She decides that a doctor provides professional services to a patient not to medicine. Finally, the last component of solving the problem is responding. Therefore, problem-solving involves the following stages: (i) Encounter problem, (ii) Information processing and (iii) Stages in solving analogies (Sternberg).

Essay on the Distribution of Intelligence :

The distribution of intelligence is not equal among all human beings, it varies as in terms of health, wealth, beauty and similar attributes. The distribution of intelligence can be studied in terms of individual differences, changes in age, sex and in terms of social or cultural differences.

Classification of IQ :

In accordance with the individual’s mental level as expressed in terms of IQ, attempts have been made by different investigations to classify them under different categories.

In the revised Stanford Edition of the Terman Merit Test this classification has been presented as follows:

The area under the curve between scores corresponds to the percentage in population between those scores. The scores on this IQ bell curve are colour-coded in ‘standard deviation units’. A standard deviation is a measure of the spread of the distribution. 15 points is one standard deviation for most IQ tests.

Nearly 70% of the population score between 85 and 115, i.e. plus and minus one standard deviation. Avery small percentage of the population (about 0.1% or 1 in 1000) have scores less than 55 or greater than 145, i.e. more than 3 standard deviations out.

A critical insight from research over the past decade is that IQ is not a fixed, genetically determined attribute. An individual’s score on the bell curve is not static. Over time—weeks, months or years—an IQ level can change substantially. Here is a general information on evidence-based methods for how to increase IQ for long-term.

Essay on Individual Differences in Intelligence:

The assessment of intelligence by various tests have given enough reason to believe that not only intelligence does vary from individual to individual but it also tends to vary in the same individual from age to age and situation to situation.

1. Intelligence and Changes in Age:

As the child grows in age, so also intelligence does as shown by intelligence tests. And also the age at which growth ceases, varies from individual to individual. It tends to stabilize after the age of 10 years and is totally stabilized during adolescence.

In majority of cases, the growth of a person’s intelligence reaches its maximum sometime between the age of 16 and 20 years after which the vertical growth of intelligence almost ceases. But the horizontal growth, i.e. with respect to achievement the realization of the intelligence in terms of accommodation of knowledge and acquisition of skills, etc. may continue throughout an individual’s life.

2. Intelligence and Gender Difference:

Many studies conducted to know whether men are more intelligent than women, showed no significant differences. It may be, therefore, stated that differences in sex do not contribute towards difference in intelligence.

3. Intelligence and Racial or Cultural Differences:

A research process was done by the research workers to check whether a particular race, caste or cultural group is superior to another in intelligence, and has been established that intelligence is not the birth right of a particular race or group.

The bright and dull can be found in any race, caste or cultural group and the differences which are found can be the result of environmental factors and influences.

Thus we can consider the intelligence is normally distributed in nature, i.e. a product of both heredity and environment, it grows with age and its vertical growth stops at 16 to 20 years of age, it shows a wide variety of individual difference but factors like sex, race, culture, caste and colour, etc. are not found to be influencing the degree of intelligence.

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Essay , Psychology , Intelligence , Essay on Intelligence

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What is human intelligence?

Can human intelligence be measured.

human intelligence

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• University of Hawai'i Pressbooks - Psychology - What Are Intelligence and Creativity?
• WebMD - What Makes Kids Intelligent
• Table Of Contents

Human intelligence is, generally speaking, the mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to control an environment. However, the question of what, exactly, defines human intelligence is contested, particularly among researchers of artificial intelligence , though there is broader agreement that intelligence consists of multiple processes, rather than being a single ability.

There is a long history of efforts to measure human intelligence. Modern theories of measurement can be traced to the French psychologist Alfred Binet and the English scientist Francis Galton , both of whom were researching intelligence during the second half of the 19th century. Standardized intelligence tests became popular during the 20th century, though their shortcomings have been extensively documented.

human intelligence , mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one ’s environment .

Much of the excitement among investigators in the field of intelligence derives from their attempts to determine exactly what intelligence is. Different investigators have emphasized different aspects of intelligence in their definitions. For example, in a 1921 symposium the American psychologists Lewis Terman and Edward L. Thorndike differed over the definition of intelligence, Terman stressing the ability to think abstractly and Thorndike emphasizing learning and the ability to give good responses to questions. More recently, however, psychologists have generally agreed that adaptation to the environment is the key to understanding both what intelligence is and what it does. Such adaptation may occur in a variety of settings: a student in school learns the material he needs to know in order to do well in a course; a physician treating a patient with unfamiliar symptoms learns about the underlying disease; or an artist reworks a painting to convey a more coherent impression. For the most part, adaptation involves making a change in oneself in order to cope more effectively with the environment, but it can also mean changing the environment or finding an entirely new one.

Effective adaptation draws upon a number of cognitive processes, such as perception , learning , memory , reasoning , and problem solving . The main emphasis in a definition of intelligence, then, is that it is not a cognitive or mental process per se but rather a selective combination of these processes that is purposively directed toward effective adaptation. Thus, the physician who learns about a new disease adapts by perceiving material on the disease in medical literature, learning what the material contains, remembering the crucial aspects that are needed to treat the patient, and then utilizing reason to solve the problem of applying the information to the needs of the patient. Intelligence, in total, has come to be regarded not as a single ability but as an effective drawing together of many abilities. This has not always been obvious to investigators of the subject, however; indeed, much of the history of the field revolves around arguments regarding the nature and abilities that constitute intelligence.

Theories of intelligence

Theories of intelligence, as is the case with most scientific theories, have evolved through a succession of models. Four of the most influential paradigms have been psychological measurement , also known as psychometrics; cognitive psychology , which concerns itself with the processes by which the mind functions; cognitivism and contextualism, a combined approach that studies the interaction between the environment and mental processes; and biological science , which considers the neural bases of intelligence. What follows is a discussion of developments within these four areas.

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Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction (2nd edn)

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Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction describes what psychologists have discovered about how and why people differ in their thinking powers. Drawing on large-scale data, it considers how many types of intelligence there are and how intelligence changes with age. It also tackles some of the most burning questions surrounding intelligence, such as whether larger brains are cleverer, and how genes and environments contribute to people’s intelligence differences. It considers the new field of cognitive epidemiology, which draws links between intelligence and better health, less illness, and longer life, and asks whether intelligence is increasing. In this new edition, the controversial question of whether men and women differ in intelligence is also addressed.

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Intelligence Essay | Importance of Intelligence, Benefits and Strength of Intelligence

October 14, 2021 by Prasanna

Intelligence Essay: Intelligence is perceived as the capacity to obtain information, to think and give reason successfully and to manage the climate. This intellectual ability helps him in the errand of hypothetical just as commonsense control of things, items or occasions present in his current circumstance to adjust or confront new difficulties and issues in life as effectively as could really be expected.

Intelligence gets from the capacity to learn and use what has been realized in acclimating to new circumstances and tackling new issues. The idea of Intelligence owes a lot to early investigations of creature learning. Intelligence is the ability to comprehend the world, think judiciously, and use assets viably when confronted with difficulties.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Sample Essay on Intelligence 800 Words in English

Introduction

Intelligence is the thing that you use when you don’t have the foggiest idea of what to do. The individual is viewed as the most Intelligenceful creature in this world. He is equipped for controlling any remaining creatures and numerous different things in this world. The word Intelligence has been gotten from a Latin action word ‘intellegere’ signifies to comprehend.

Intelligence plays a vital part in the everyday exercises of the person. Intelligence addresses a point of convergence for therapists, they expect to see how individuals can embrace their conduct to the climate where they reside. It additionally addresses a critical part of how people contrast from each other in the manner by which they find out about and comprehend the world. Mental tests are utilized to quantify individual contrasts that exist among individuals in capacities, aptitudes, interests and part of the character.

“Intelligence is the total or worldwide limit of a person to think objectively, to act intentionally and to manage his current circumstance”.

This definition incorporates three significant cycles, viz., to act deliberately implies, to act not set in stone way with no equivocalness, to think fittingly in a judicious way with practically no biases and to manage the climate or to change in an appropriate manner with the climate.

Importance of Intelligence

Man is particularly not quite the same as the lower types of creatures as a result of his capacity in controlling the climate he lives in. The differentiation among man and different creatures additionally springs from his fruitful transformation to his natural requests. The creatures can, best case scenario, departure to wellbeing, secure their lives, may assemble homes as their asylum, can move to a far off land, yet can’t overcome nature. The creatures barely can brilliantly adjust to any negative turbulent climate.

Despite what might be expected, man can reproduce the world, make solaces for him with the assistance of logical contraptions, climb the high scopes of mountains, attack the profundity of the oceans and air, travel with huge speed, and can broaden the life expectancy of its species by designing solutions for a few deadly infections. His scholarly abilities place him as the most prevalent species in the animals of the world collectively. Subsequently, basic all human capacities lie the fundamental ascribes of Intelligence.

Intelligence is a famous term alluding to all types of man’s mind-boggling mental capacities. Intelligence as a term alludes to the capacity to get, act, decipher, and foresee the future, and to accomplish and deal with connections, data, ideas, and conceptual images. Intelligence is accordingly a normally utilized word to communicate all-inclusive limit needed for endurance and progress past the present.

Intelligence is a course of comprehension. “Cognizance alludes to how we obtain, store, recover, and use information”. Every one of the essential mental cycles like learning, Intelligence, memory, idea development, thinking, thinking, critical thinking, dynamic, and imagination are identified with Intelligence.

Intelligence conduct incorporates all types of intellectual conduct like joining in, seeing, getting the hang of, remembering, thinking and foreseeing. Intelligence is a theoretical idea. It can’t be noticed bearing it very well may be assessed distinctly through person’s presentation on tests and relife circumstances. As of late, the idea of Intelligence has been expanded to incorporate such terms as “enthusiastic Intelligence”, “otherworldly Intelligence “down to earth Intelligence”, “Social Intelligence”, “professional Intelligence” and “melodic Intelligence”.

Short Essay on Intelligence is Strength 400 Words in English

Many would say characterizing Intelligence is handily done, or that Intelligence is unmistakably the capacity to secure and apply information and abilities. Be that as it may, there is something beyond one sort of Intelligence in individuals. Only one out of every odd human has a similar point of view and capacities. Each individual has their own arrangement of remarkable capacities and gifts that can’t be characterized and caught in one sentence. Intelligence is characterized by individuals, and by their activities, speculations, convictions, and advancements. Many have looked to characterize Intelligence, which is the reason we are left with various hypotheses of what Intelligence really is.

Maybe, there are two kinds of Intelligence that sort various gifts and capacities moved by people. Asimov accepts there are two sorts of Intelligence. He starts to clarify how certain individuals have the ability of remembrance and basic reasoning. Others have minds that can envision something and make or fix it to its wonderful design.

Each side of the mind controls two distinct sorts of reasoning. The first is the right side, which is utilized for inventive reasoning. The second is the left this is utilized for coherent reasoning. It has been demonstrated that small kids tackle additional force from the innovative side. Since schools for the most part instruct towards consistent thinking as kids become more seasoned the greater part of the populace utilizes intelligent reasoning.

This immensely affects human Intelligence. This shows that individuals can be similarly Intelligenceful however their Intelligence can lay in various regions alongside the possibility that Intelligence is something not fixed yet can be expanded. Many would contend that abilities and Intelligence are not exactly the same thing. In any case, the ability is only an inclination to be effective in a specific endeavour. This definition additionally clarifies the facilitate some have with math and phonetics; accordingly, it is consistent to say that regions usually considered as abilities have similarly as much to do with Intelligence as regions all the more normally saw as “really Intelligence.”

Frequently individuals fail to remember that Intelligence isn’t restricted to rationale, math, and etymology. Intelligence extends to the makers, trend-setters, and menders just as the legitimate scholars. Each individual understands things in an unexpected way. This doesn’t make one human keener than the other. They basically have dominated diverse savvy abilities. Maybe, the smartest individual would be one who can utilize the left and right half of their cerebrum to every one of their greatest abilities.

FAQ’s on Intelligence Essay

Question 1. What is the true meaning of intelligence?

Answer: Intelligence is the capacity to learn or comprehend or to manage new or attempting circumstances. It is the capacity to apply information to control one’s current circumstances or to think uniquely as estimated by target standards.

Question 2. What is the importance of intelligence?

Answer: Intelligence is the capacity to think, to gain, as a matter of fact, to take care of issues, and to adjust to new circumstances. Intelligence is significant on the grounds that it affects numerous human practices.

Question 3. Write a short paragraph on intelligence.

Answer: Intelligence is perceived as the capacity to gain information, to think and give reason adequately and to manage the climate. Intelligence addresses a point of convergence for therapists, they expect to see how individuals can take on their conduct to the climate in which they live.

Question 4. What is emotional intelligence?

Answer: Emotional Intelligence is the capacity to distinguish and control one’s feelings and comprehend the feelings the others. A high Emotional Intelligence assists you with building connections, decrease group pressure, stop the struggle and further develop work fulfillment. Emotional Intelligence is significant for each and every individual who needs to be vocation prepared.

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The concept of multiple intelligences is a theory proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner . When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of  IQ testing  may immediately come to mind. Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.

In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged, including Gardner's suggestion that multiple different types of intelligence may exist. The eight intelligences according to Gardner are:

• Visual-spatial
• Linguistic-verbal
• Logical-mathematical
• Body-kinesthetic
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Naturalistic

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences , where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."

Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence."  

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, they most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical, and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism of Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s theory into the classroom.

Gardner has cautioned that multiple intelligences should not be conflated with learning styles . (It is also important to stress that evidence has found that matching instruction to a learner's perceived style has no benefits in terms of learning outcomes or educational attainment.)

There is a lack of evidence to demonstrate that learning according to your "intelligence" produces better educational outcomes. However, you may find that learning more about multiple intelligences can give you a better understanding of your strengths and preferences.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.  

Visual and spatial judgment

Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

• Read and write for enjoyment
• Are good at putting puzzles together
• Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
• Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
• Recognize patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are: 

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.  

Words, language, and writing

People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:

• Remember written and spoken information
• Enjoy reading and writing
• Debate or give persuasive speeches
• Are able to explain things well
• Use humor when telling stories

If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Writer/journalist

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.  

Analyzing problems and mathematical operations

Characteristics 

People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

• Have excellent problem-solving skills
• Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas
• Like conducting scientific experiments
• Can solve complex computations

If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Mathematician
• Computer programmer

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Those who have high bodily- kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.  

Physical movement, motor control

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

• Are skilled at dancing and sports
• Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
• Have excellent physical coordination
• Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Craftsperson

Musical Intelligence

People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.  

Rhythm and music

People with musical intelligence:

• Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments
• Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
• Remember songs and melodies
• Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes

If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Music teacher

Interpersonal Intelligence

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions , motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them.  

Understanding and relating to other people

People with interpersonal intelligence:

• Communicate well verbally
• Are skilled at nonverbal communication
• See situations from different perspectives
• Create positive relationships with others
• Resolve conflicts in group settings

If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Psychologist
• Philosopher
• Salesperson

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.  

Introspection and self-reflection

People with intrapersonal intelligence:

• Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well
• Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
• Have excellent self-awareness
• Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

Naturalistic Intelligence

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.  

Finding patterns and relationships to nature

People with naturalistic intelligence:

• Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
• Categorize and catalog information easily
• Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
• Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Conservationist

Existential Intelligence

Existential intelligence is the ninth type of intelligence suggested as an addition to Gardner's original theory. He described existential intelligence as an ability to delve into deeper questions about life and existence. People with this type of intelligence contemplate the "big" questions about topics such as the meaning of life and how actions can serve larger goals.

An ability to see the big picture

People with existential intelligence:

• Have a long-term outlook
• Consider how current actions influence future outcomes
• Interest in questions about the meaning of life and death
• Strong interest and concern for others
• The ability to see situations from an outside perspective

If you have a strong sense of existential intelligence, you might enjoy a career as a:

• Pastoral counselor

What Is Your Intelligence Type? Try Our Quiz

If you'd like to know more about your intelligence style, try our fast and free quiz to learn more about what makes you tick.

Keep in Mind

The theory of multiple intelligences is important because it allows us to think about different types of mental strengths and abilities. Learning more about which types of intelligence you lean towards may help you learn to recognize your own preferences. However, it shouldn't be used as a tool to label and should not be confused with learning styles.

Instead of trying to match what you learn to your perceived type of intelligence, focus on learning new things via various modalities and formats to strengthen encoding and reinforce learning.

Frequently Asked Questions

Your child may have high bodily kinesthetic intelligence if they prefer hands on experiences, struggle sitting still and listening for long periods of time, and/or remember information best when they're able to participate in an activity. They may also prefer working alone instead of working in a group.

To tap into your bodily kinesthetic intelligence, try performing activities that require using both your body and mind, such as taking a dance class, learning an instrument, or drawing.

Bakić-mirić N. Implementation of multiple intelligences theory in the English language course syllabus at the University of Nis Medical School. Srp Arh Celok Lek. 2010;138(1-2):105-10.

Cerruti C. Building a functional multiple intelligences theory to advance educational neuroscience. Front Psychol. 2013;4:950. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00950

The Washington Post. Howard Gardner: 'Multiple intelligences' are not 'learning styles .'

Husmann PR, O'Loughlin VD. Another nail in the coffin for learning styles? Disparities among undergraduate anatomy students' study strategies, class performance, and reported VARK learning styles . Anat Sci Educ . 2019;12(1):6-19. doi:10.1002/ase.1777

Levine SC, Ratliff KR, Huttenlocher J, Cannon J. Early puzzle play: a predictor of preschoolers' spatial transformation skill. Dev Psychol . 2012;48(2):530-42. doi:10.1037/a0025913

Singh Y, Makharia A, Sharma A, Agrawal K, Varma G, Yadav T. A study on different forms of intelligence in Indian school-going children. Ind Psychiatry J. 2017;26(1):71-76. doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_61_16

Sternberg RJ. Intelligence. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2012;14(1):19-27.

Koohestani HR, Baghcheghi N. A comparison of learning styles of undergraduate health-care professional students at the beginning, middle, and end of the educational course over a 4-year study period (2015-2018) .  J Educ Health Promot . 2020;9:208. doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_224_20

Michelaki E, Bournelli P. The development of bodily - Kinesthetic intelligence through creative dance for preschool students . JESR. doi:10.5901/jesr.2016.v6n3p23

Gardner H. On the Three Faces of Intelligence.  Daedalus. Winter 2002;131(1):139-142.

• Gardner H.  A Multiplicity of Intelligences . Published 2004.
• Gardner H.  Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.  New York: Basic Books; 1983.
• Gardner H.  Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century.  New York: Basic Books; 1999.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Intelligence

IQ, Giftedness

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Reading a road map upside-down, excelling at chess, and generating synonyms for "brilliant" may seem like three different skills. But each is thought to be a measurable indicator of general intelligence or "g," a construct that includes problem-solving ability, spatial manipulation, and language acquisition that is relatively stable across a person's lifetime.

IQ—or intelligence quotient—is the standard most widely used to assess general intelligence. IQ tests seek to measures a variety of intellectual skills that include verbal, non-verbal and spatial. Any person from any walk of life can be highly intelligent, and scoring high on one sub-test tends to correlate with high scores in other tests, though this is not always the case. IQ tests compare a person's performance with that of other people who are the same age—what’s known as a normative sample.

Research has shown that IQ is generally strongly correlated with positive life outcomes, including health and longevity, job performance, and adult income. It is also protective in ways that are not fully understood: People with high IQs seem to be at an advantage in coping with traumatic events—they are less likely to develop full-blown PTSD and more capable of overcoming it when they do—and may experience less rapid decline during the course of Alzheimer's Disease.

• The Roots of Human Intelligence
• Boosting Intelligence
• Who’s Smarter?
• Intelligence and Relationships

There may be. Research suggest that people who are high in the personality trait of openness tended to be more mentally flexible and verbally fluent and more likely to take creative, unconventional approaches to solving problems. Extraverted people were also more likely to score higher on test of verbal fluency because they tended to talk more, and be less concerned about mistakes. And people higher in the trait of conscientiousness tend to perform better on memory tasks because they’re generally better organized and willing to work harder.

No, not even close. This pervasive pop-culture myth—one survey found that 50 percent of science teachers believed it was true—has no basis in reality. We use 100 percent of our brains every day, as is clearly shown by functional magnetic resonance imaging scans. Neurons only make up 10 percent of the cells in our brains but the other 90 percent work full-time, maintaining homeostasis, providing structural support, and removing pathogens. The source of the famous notion is pioneering psychologist William James, who once write that “we are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources,” and he was right—but our untapped potential has little to do with our brain cells.

No, a larger brain does not make a person more intelligent . Some studies have suggested, for example, that a larger brain may contribute as much as 6 percent boost to one’s intelligence, but this research has come into question, and some experts doubt that a larger brain would bring any advantages because it would necessarily demand greater energy consumption, potentially contributing a drag on a person’s resources. Considering all animals, including humans, there is a theory that the size of a creature’s brain relative the size of their body may confer a higher level of intelligence, though—and human brains constitute up a higher ratio of our body size than do the brains of many other animals.

The theory known as “the Flynn effect” maintains that average IQ scores have and will continue to rise over time, primarily due to changes in our environment—better diet and greater access to education and information, for example. But in recent years, IQ scores appear to declining —one-half to two points per decade—possibly a reflection of a decline in those same environmental factors.

In the early 1980s, Harvard researcher Howard Gardner proposed that, along with IQ, there may be multiple kinds of intelligence that people possess in varying quantities, including visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, and interpersonal (emotional) intelligence. According to this theory, someone high in interpersonal intelligence would likely excel at cooperating within a group, while someone with high levels of logical-mathematical intelligence would have a heightened capacity to understand numbers, patterns, and logic. But while the concept has gained much public attention — and is often used as part of personality or employment tests—many researchers dispute the idea of different intelligences and have criticized Gardner's theory, criteria, and research designs. For example, emotional intelligence cannot be reliably measured through testing as general intelligence can, the critics argue, and so it lacks the power to explain differences between people.

For more, see Emotional Intelligence .

A critical prerequisite for intellectual growth is the idea that one can gain mastery and improve on native ability. While one can indeed improve memory and problem-solving abilities over time via practice or environmental pressure, this does not mean that one is becoming "more" intelligent. IQ scores do not fluctuate markedly over the course of a person's lifetime, and they tend to consistently correlate with other tests, such as the SAT. Many supplements and computer programs are marketed as brain boosters, but there is little long-term evidence to support those claims.

One reason people attend, and stay in, school through high school, college, and beyond, is to become more intelligent. And while additional years of schooling should increase one’s store of general knowledge and career prospects, until recently research had not concluded that formal education also increased one’s IQ. But then a meta-analysis determined that each additional year of schooling appeared to raise IQ by one to five points. Exactly how schooling boosts IQ is not clear, though, nor is whether or how the effect accumulates over many years of education. But experts point to the study as a sign of a more crucial truth: that an individual’s intelligence can change over time.

The right ones seem to be able to. Successful players of games requiring strategy, creativity , and teamwork , research finds, tend to have a higher IQ than others. A similar connection between IQ and gaming success was not found in studies of first-person shooter-type games that rely on hand-eye coordination. But other studies find that playing certain games can actually help boost IQ. Studies that involved popular puzzle-based strategy games, particularly those involving complex, changing environments, led to gains in problem solving, spatial skills, and persistence. Significantly, such results were not found in studies of so-called “brain-training” games marketed as cognitive boosters.

A growing body of research supports the idea that exercise can help boost cognition, especially moderate-to-vigorous aerobic exercise. In one example, researchers found that, for older people, time spent in moderate-to-vigorous cardiovascular exercise was positively correlated with increases in “fluid” intelligence—processing speed, memory, and reasoning. In the same study, sedentary time was correlated with boosts in “crystallized” intelligence, such as vocabulary development. Light physical activity, however, provided little cognitive benefit.

Stimulants like methylphenidate ( Ritalin ) and mixed amphetamine salts ( Adderall ) deliver proven benefits for many people with ADHD. But the question of whether such stimulants could improve cognitive ability is highly controversial. Recent research, however, suggests that the drugs do not deliver any cognitive enhancement—aside from an increase in confidence , interest, and energy in people’s tasks. A boost in optimism when tackling a difficult assignment is not the same as a boost in intelligence, but it can help deliver better results by motivating people to deploy their existing cognitive resources more vigorously.

While most research finds very little difference in the mean IQ between men and women,  men are overrepresented at the tails of the distribution. This means that more men than women have scores that reflect severe retardation, and more men than women score in the profoundly gifted or "genius" range. Research shows that men are a lot more likely than women to overstate their intelligence. In one example, 71 percent of men claimed to be smarter than the average person, compared to just 59 percent of women.

There’s a persistent stereotype that people high in the trait of psychopathy are smarter than most others because they are skilled at both presenting a false façade to potential victims and at manipulating targets into doing what they want those people to do. But research shows that this is not the case. In fact, some studies find, psychopaths are generally less intelligent than others, particularly so when it comes to capabilities like recognizing emotions in others. So why do they seem so intelligent and devious? Researchers suggest that it’s because they constantly target people with schemes, to the point that even if their percentage of success is quite low, they do occasionally rope in a target.

No, but many become obsessed with the idea that they could be. Studies of narcissism have found that a belief in their intellectual superiority is often crucial to their identity . Narcissists of the type known as grandiose are highly likely to believe they are smarter than other people; some place an especially high value on IQ testing. Vulnerable narcissists, on the other hand, who tend to be more introverted, insecure, and neurotic , are not as likely to believe that they are smarter than others, but they are more likely than others to find taking intelligence tests to be highly stressful .

It has long been believed that left-handed people are smarter than right-handers, but research does not support the notion. In fact, a meta-analysis of studies including more than 20,000 people found that right-handers had a slightly higher IQ, on average, than left-handers, but the difference was not significant.

This is emerging as a core philosophical question as AI systems increase in power and humans become more concerned about how many aspects of work, decision-making , and even creative production could eventually be turned over to computer intelligence. But there are some tasks humans perform far better, such as image recognition, and humans can also be seen as more flexible and adaptive learners. Some argue that the human propensity to ask original questions sets us apart from machine intelligence, along with the ability to leverage others people’s intelligence while solving problems together.

The vast majority of people claim that they find intelligence to be among the most desirable traits in a potential romantic partner. As with other favorable traits, though, this appeal most strongly influences initial interest in a new partner. Once people begin dating, other factors like personality and conflict style play important roles in determining whether a couple will stay together. But for a certain group, intelligence is their primary erotic turn-on . Some research suggests that these individuals, known as sapiosexuals , may represent a distinct sexual orientation . Interestingly, whether one finds intelligence to be a turn-on does not seem to be determined by one’s own level of intelligence. But for sapiosexuals, looks and even gender may not be as vital a factor in sexual attraction as intelligence.

Generally, yes. Studies of adolescents found that more intelligent individuals were more well-liked by peers than others—although other research finds that more intelligent people tend to like fewer people than others, and to prefer being with other intelligent people. In the dating pool, smarter people may be at an advantage because others’ preference for being with smart people is strongest at the beginning of relationships.

Generally, it’s an advantage, although some research suggests that the most intelligent people may be at a disadvantage . When people were asked to consider whether they would want to date people in different percentiles of intelligence, the favorability rankings increased steadily from the 50th percentile to the 90th, at which point interest declined. This research is consistent with other findings that even the most appealing traits tend not be desired in the extreme.

In surveys, men and women both claim that they are at least as attracted to intelligence as they are to good looks. In practice, especially for men, that is not always the case. The idea that highly intelligent women may be at a disadvantage in the dating pool , research suggests, is no myth: Men tend to shy away from women who are clearly more intelligent than they are. (Women are less likely to have the same reaction to intelligent men.) Experts suggest that intelligent women avoid dumbing themselves down to attract a partner or going out of their way to support a partner’s ego, as in the end those strategies are likely to lead to unfulfilling relationships.

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9.1 Defining and Measuring Intelligence

Learning objectives.

• Define intelligence and list the different types of intelligences psychologists study.
• Summarize the characteristics of a scientifically valid intelligence test.
• Outline the biological and environmental determinants of intelligence.

Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). These questions include how many types of intelligence there are, the role of nature versus nurture in intelligence, how intelligence is represented in the brain, and the meaning of group differences in intelligence.

General (g) Versus Specific (s) Intelligences

In the early 1900s, the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1914) and his colleague Henri Simon (1872–1961) began working in Paris to develop a measure that would differentiate students who were expected to be better learners from students who were expected to be slower learners. The goal was to help teachers better educate these two groups of students. Binet and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first intelligence test, which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects, define words, draw pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences.

Binet and Simon (Binet, Simon, & Town, 1915; Siegler, 1992) believed that the questions they asked their students, even though they were on the surface dissimilar, all assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. And it turned out that the correlations among these different types of measures were in fact all positive; students who got one item correct were more likely to also get other items correct, even though the questions themselves were very different.

On the basis of these results, the psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) hypothesized that there must be a single underlying construct that all of these items measure. He called the construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the general intelligence factor (g) . Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor, g, that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge, to reason abstractly, to adapt to novel situations, and to benefit from instruction and experience (Gottfredson, 1997; Sternberg, 2003). People with higher general intelligence learn faster.

Soon after Binet and Simon introduced their test, the American psychologist Lewis Terman (1877–1956) developed an American version of Binet’s test that became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test . The Stanford-Binet is a measure of general intelligence made up of a wide variety of tasks including vocabulary, memory for pictures, naming of familiar objects, repeating sentences, and following commands.

Although there is general agreement among psychologists that g exists, there is also evidence for specific intelligence (s) , a measure of specific skills in narrow domains . One empirical result in support of the idea of s comes from intelligence tests themselves. Although the different types of questions do correlate with each other, some items correlate more highly with each other than do other items; they form clusters or clumps of intelligences.

One distinction is between fluid intelligence , which refers to the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities, and crystallized intelligence , which refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives (Salthouse, 2004). These intelligences must be different because crystallized intelligence increases with age—older adults are as good as or better than young people in solving crossword puzzles—whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age (Horn, Donaldson, & Engstrom, 1981; Salthouse, 2004).

Other researchers have proposed even more types of intelligences. L. L. Thurstone (1938) proposed that there were seven clusters of primary mental abilities , made up of word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. But even these dimensions tend to be at least somewhat correlated, showing again the importance of g.

One advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert Sternberg. Sternberg has proposed a triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence that proposes that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence . Sternberg (1985, 2003) argued that traditional intelligence tests assess analytical intelligence, the ability to answer problems with a single right answer, but that they do not well assess creativity (the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas) or practicality (e.g., the ability to write good memos or to effectively delegate responsibility).

As Sternberg proposed, research has found that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical intelligence (Furnham & Bachtiar, 2008), and exceptionally creative scientists, artists, mathematicians, and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than do their less creative peers (Simonton, 2000). Furthermore, the brain areas that are associated with convergent thinking , thinking that is directed toward finding the correct answer to a given problem, are different from those associated with divergent thinking , the ability to generate many different ideas for or solutions to a single problem (Tarasova, Volf, & Razoumnikova, 2010). On the other hand, being creative often takes some of the basic abilities measured by g, including the abilities to learn from experience, to remember information, and to think abstractly (Bink & Marsh, 2000).

Test your divergent thinking. How many uses for a paper clip can you think of?

Dead Hochman – paper clips – CC BY 2.0.

Studies of creative people suggest at least five components that are likely to be important for creativity:

• Expertise . Creative people have carefully studied and know a lot about the topic that they are working in. Creativity comes with a lot of hard work (Ericsson, 1998; Weisberg, 2006).
• Imaginative thinking . Creative people often view a problem in a visual way, allowing them to see it from a new and different point of view.
• Risk taking . Creative people are willing to take on new but potentially risky approaches.
• Intrinsic interest . Creative people tend to work on projects because they love doing them, not because they are paid for them. In fact, research has found that people who are paid to be creative are often less creative than those who are not (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010).
• Working in a creative environment . Creativity is in part a social phenomenon. Simonton (1992) found that the most creative people were supported, aided, and challenged by other people working on similar projects.

The last aspect of the triarchic model, practical intelligence, refers primarily to intelligence that cannot be gained from books or formal learning. Practical intelligence represents a type of “street smarts” or “common sense” that is learned from life experiences. Although a number of tests have been devised to measure practical intelligence (Sternberg, Wagner, & Okagaki, 1993; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985), research has not found much evidence that practical intelligence is distinct from g or that it is predictive of success at any particular tasks (Gottfredson, 2003). Practical intelligence may include, at least in part, certain abilities that help people perform well at specific jobs, and these abilities may not always be highly correlated with general intelligence (Sternberg, Wagner, & Okagaki, 1993). On the other hand, these abilities or skills are very specific to particular occupations and thus do not seem to represent the broader idea of intelligence.

Another champion of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner argued that it would be evolutionarily functional for different people to have different talents and skills, and proposed that there are eight intelligences that can be differentiated from each other ( Table 9.1 “Howard Gardner’s Eight Specific Intelligences” ). Gardner noted that some evidence for multiple intelligences comes from the abilities of autistic savants , people who score low on intelligence tests overall but who nevertheless may have exceptional skills in a given domain, such as math, music, art, or in being able to recite statistics in a given sport (Treffert & Wallace, 2004).

Table 9.1 Howard Gardner’s Eight Specific Intelligences

Source: Adapted from Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . New York, NY: Basic Books.

Although intelligence is often conceptualized in a general way (as the g factor), there is a variety of specific skills that can be useful for particular tasks.

Nayu Kim – Playing piano – CC BY 2.0; Helgi Halldórsson – Run faster, Jump higher – CC BY-SA 2.0; Thomas Hawk – Bahamian Clown – CC BY-NC 2.0; Sudipta Mallick – painter – CC BY 2.0; Blondinrikard Fröberg – Torsten, math teacher – CC BY 2.0.

The idea of multiple intelligences has been influential in the field of education, and teachers have used these ideas to try to teach differently to different students. For instance, to teach math problems to students who have particularly good kinesthetic intelligence, a teacher might encourage the students to move their bodies or hands according to the numbers. On the other hand, some have argued that these “intelligences” sometimes seem more like “abilities” or “talents” rather than real intelligence. And there is no clear conclusion about how many intelligences there are. Are sense of humor, artistic skills, dramatic skills, and so forth also separate intelligences? Furthermore, and again demonstrating the underlying power of a single intelligence, the many different intelligences are in fact correlated and thus represent, in part, g (Brody, 2003).

Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient

The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure g, the general intelligence factor. Good intelligence tests are reliable , meaning that they are consistent over time, and also demonstrate construct validity , meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else. Because intelligence is such an important individual difference dimension, psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence, and these tests are now the most accurate of all psychological tests. In fact, the ability to accurately assess intelligence is one of the most important contributions of psychology to everyday public life.

Intelligence changes with age. A 3-year-old who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent, but a 25-year-old who could not do so would be seen as unintelligent. Thus understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age. The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level .

It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis, because the overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time. The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past decades (Flynn, 1999). Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country, the average increase is about 3 IQ points every 10 years. There are many explanations for the Flynn effect, including better nutrition, increased access to information, and more familiarity with multiple-choice tests (Neisser, 1998). But whether people are actually getting smarter is debatable (Neisser, 1997).

Once the standardization has been accomplished, we have a picture of the average abilities of people at different ages and can calculate a person’s mental age , which is the age at which a person is performing intellectually . If we compare the mental age of a person to the person’s chronological age, the result is the intelligence quotient (IQ) , a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age . A simple way to calculate IQ is by using the following formula:

IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.

Thus a 10-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child has an IQ of 100 (10 ÷ 10 × 100), whereas an 8-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child would have an IQ of 125 (10 ÷ 8 × 100). Most modern intelligence tests are based the relative position of a person’s score among people of the same age, rather than on the basis of this formula, but the idea of an intelligence “ratio” or “quotient” provides a good description of the score’s meaning.

A number of scales are based on the IQ. The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used intelligence test for adults (Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark, 1995). The current version of the WAIS, the WAIS-IV, was standardized on 2,200 people ranging from 16 to 90 years of age. It consists of 15 different tasks, each designed to assess intelligence, including working memory, arithmetic ability, spatial ability, and general knowledge about the world (see Figure 9.4 “Sample Items From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)” ). The WAIS-IV yields scores on four domains: verbal, perceptual, working memory, and processing speed. The reliability of the test is high (more than 0.95), and it shows substantial construct validity. The WAIS-IV is correlated highly with other IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet, as well as with criteria of academic and life success, including college grades, measures of work performance, and occupational level. It also shows significant correlations with measures of everyday functioning among the mentally retarded.

The Wechsler scale has also been adapted for preschool children in the form of the Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) and for older children and adolescents in the form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) .

Figure 9.4 Sample Items From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Source: Adapted from Thorndike, R. L., & Hagen, E. P. (1997). Cognitive Abilities Test (Form 5): Research handbook . Chicago, IL: Riverside Publishing.

The intelligence tests that you may be most familiar with are aptitude tests , which are designed to measure one’s ability to perform a given task, for instance, to do well in college or in postgraduate training. Most U.S. colleges and universities require students to take the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) or the American College Test (ACT), and postgraduate schools require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). These tests are useful for selecting students because they predict success in the programs that they are designed for, particularly in the first year of the program (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2010). These aptitude tests also measure, in part, intelligence. Frey and Detterman (2004) found that the SAT correlated highly (between about r = .7 and r = .8) with standard measures of intelligence.

Intelligence tests are also used by industrial and organizational psychologists in the process of personnel selection . Personnel selection is the use of structured tests to select people who are likely to perform well at given jobs (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). The psychologists begin by conducting a job analysis in which they determine what knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics ( KSAPs ) are required for a given job. This is normally accomplished by surveying and/or interviewing current workers and their supervisors. Based on the results of the job analysis, the psychologists choose selection methods that are most likely to be predictive of job performance. Measures include tests of cognitive and physical ability and job knowledge tests, as well as measures of IQ and personality.

The Biology of Intelligence

The brain processes underlying intelligence are not completely understood, but current research has focused on four potential factors: brain size, sensory ability, speed and efficience of neural transmission, and working memory capacity.

There is at least some truth to the idea that smarter people have bigger brains. Studies that have measured brain volume using neuroimaging techniques find that larger brain size is correlated with intelligence (McDaniel, 2005), and intelligence has also been found to be correlated with the number of neurons in the brain and with the thickness of the cortex (Haier, 2004; Shaw et al., 2006). It is important to remember that these correlational findings do not mean that having more brain volume causes higher intelligence. It is possible that growing up in a stimulating environment that rewards thinking and learning may lead to greater brain growth (Garlick, 2003), and it is also possible that a third variable, such as better nutrition, causes both brain volume and intelligence.

Another possibility is that the brains of more intelligent people operate faster or more efficiently than the brains of the less intelligent. Some evidence supporting this idea comes from data showing that people who are more intelligent frequently show less brain activity (suggesting that they need to use less capacity) than those with lower intelligence when they work on a task (Haier, Siegel, Tang, & Abel, 1992). And the brains of more intelligent people also seem to run faster than the brains of the less intelligent. Research has found that the speed with which people can perform simple tasks—such as determining which of two lines is longer or pressing, as quickly as possible, one of eight buttons that is lighted—is predictive of intelligence (Deary, Der, & Ford, 2001). Intelligence scores also correlate at about r = .5 with measures of working memory (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005), and working memory is now used as a measure of intelligence on many tests.

Although intelligence is not located in a specific part of the brain, it is more prevalent in some brain areas than others. Duncan et al. (2000) administered a variety of intelligence tasks and observed the places in the cortex that were most active. Although different tests created different patterns of activation, as you can see in Figure 9.5 “Where Is Intelligence?” , these activated areas were primarily in the outer parts of the cortex, the area of the brain most involved in planning, executive control, and short-term memory.

Figure 9.5 Where Is Intelligence?

fMRI studies have found that the areas of the brain most related to intelligence are in the outer parts of the cortex.

Source: Adapted from Duncan, J., Seitz, R. J., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H., Ahmed, A.,…Emslie, H. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 289 (5478), 457–460.

Is Intelligence Nature or Nurture?

Intelligence has both genetic and environmental causes, and these have been systematically studied through a large number of twin and adoption studies (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, DeFries, Craig, & McGuffin, 2003). These studies have found that between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role than does environment in creating IQ differences among individuals (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). The IQs of identical twins correlate very highly ( r = .86), much higher than do the scores of fraternal twins who are less genetically similar ( r = .60). And the correlations between the IQs of parents and their biological children ( r = .42) is significantly greater than the correlation between parents and adopted children ( r = .19). The role of genetics gets stronger as children get older. The intelligence of very young children (less than 3 years old) does not predict adult intelligence, but by age 7 it does, and IQ scores remain very stable in adulthood (Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley, & Fox, 2004).

But there is also evidence for the role of nurture, indicating that individuals are not born with fixed, unchangeable levels of intelligence. Twins raised together in the same home have more similar IQs than do twins who are raised in different homes, and fraternal twins have more similar IQs than do nontwin siblings, which is likely due to the fact that they are treated more similarly than are siblings.

The fact that intelligence becomes more stable as we get older provides evidence that early environmental experiences matter more than later ones. Environmental factors also explain a greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for children from lower-class households than they do for children from upper-class households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D’Onofrio, & Gottesman, 2003). This is because most upper-class households tend to provide a safe, nutritious, and supporting environment for children, whereas these factors are more variable in lower-class households.

Social and economic deprivation can adversely affect IQ. Children from households in poverty have lower IQs than do children from households with more resources even when other factors such as education, race, and parenting are controlled (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). Poverty may lead to diets that are undernourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins, and poor children may also be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as lead in drinking water, dust, or paint chips (Bellinger & Needleman, 2003). Both of these factors can slow brain development and reduce intelligence.

If impoverished environments can harm intelligence, we might wonder whether enriched environments can improve it. Government-funded after-school programs such as Head Start are designed to help children learn. Research has found that attending such programs may increase intelligence for a short time, but these increases rarely last after the programs end (McLoyd, 1998; Perkins & Grotzer, 1997). But other studies suggest that Head Start and similar programs may improve emotional intelligence and reduce the likelihood that children will drop out of school or be held back a grade (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann 2001).

Intelligence is improved by education; the number of years a person has spent in school correlates at about r = .6 with IQ (Ceci, 1991). In part this correlation may be due to the fact that people with higher IQ scores enjoy taking classes more than people with low IQ scores, and they thus are more likely to stay in school. But education also has a causal effect on IQ. Comparisons between children who are almost exactly the same age but who just do or just do not make a deadline for entering school in a given school year show that those who enter school a year earlier have higher IQ than those who have to wait until the next year to begin school (Baltes & Reinert, 1969; Ceci & Williams, 1997). Children’s IQs tend to drop significantly during summer vacations (Huttenlocher, Levine, & Vevea, 1998), a finding that suggests that a longer school year, as is used in Europe and East Asia, is beneficial.

It is important to remember that the relative roles of nature and nurture can never be completely separated. A child who has higher than average intelligence will be treated differently than a child who has lower than average intelligence, and these differences in behaviors will likely amplify initial differences. This means that modest genetic differences can be multiplied into big differences over time.

Psychology in Everyday Life: Emotional Intelligence

Although most psychologists have considered intelligence a cognitive ability, people also use their emotions to help them solve problems and relate effectively to others. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to accurately identify, assess, and understand emotions, as well as to effectively control one’s own emotions (Feldman-Barrett & Salovey, 2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).

The idea of emotional intelligence is seen in Howard Gardner’s interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the emotions, intentions, motivations, and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, including one’s emotions). Public interest in, and research on, emotional intellgence became widely prevalent following the publication of Daniel Goleman’s best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (Goleman, 1998).

There are a variety of measures of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008; Petrides & Furnham, 2000). One popular measure, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test ( http://www.emotionaliq.org ), includes items about the ability to understand, experience, and manage emotions, such as these:

• What mood(s) might be helpful to feel when meeting in-laws for the very first time?
• Tom felt anxious and became a bit stressed when he thought about all the work he needed to do. When his supervisor brought him an additional project, he felt ____ (fill in the blank).

Contempt most closely combines which two emotions?

• anger and fear
• fear and surprise
• disgust and anger
• surprise and disgust

Debbie just came back from vacation. She was feeling peaceful and content. How well would each of the following actions help her preserve her good mood?

• Action 1: She started to make a list of things at home that she needed to do.
• Action 2: She began thinking about where and when she would go on her next vacation.
• Action 3: She decided it was best to ignore the feeling since it wouldn’t last anyway.

One problem with emotional intelligence tests is that they often do not show a great deal of reliability or construct validity (Føllesdal & Hagtvet, 2009).Although it has been found that people with higher emotional intelligence are also healthier (Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010), findings are mixed about whether emotional intelligence predicts life success—for instance, job performance (Harms & Credé, 2010). Furthermore, other researchers have questioned the construct validity of the measures, arguing that emotional intelligence really measures knowledge about what emotions are, but not necessarily how to use those emotions (Brody, 2004), and that emotional intelligence is actually a personality trait, a part of g, or a skill that can be applied in some specific work situations—for instance, academic and work situations (Landy, 2005).

Although measures of the ability to understand, experience, and manage emotions may not predict effective behaviors, another important aspect of emotional intelligence— emotion regulation —does. Emotion regulation refers to the ability to control and productively use one’s emotions. Research has found that people who are better able to override their impulses to seek immediate gratification and who are less impulsive also have higher cognitive and social intelligence. They have better SAT scores, are rated by their friends as more socially adept, and cope with frustration and stress better than those with less skill at emotion regulation (Ayduk et al., 2000; Eigsti et al., 2006; Mischel & Ayduk, 2004).

Because emotional intelligence seems so important, many school systems have designed programs to teach it to their students. However, the effectiveness of these programs has not been rigorously tested, and we do not yet know whether emotional intelligence can be taught, or if learning it would improve the quality of people’s lives (Mayer & Cobb, 2000).

Key Takeaways

• Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems, and to adapt to new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviors.
• Psychologists believe that there is a construct that accounts for the overall differences in intelligence among people, known as general intelligence (g).
• There is also evidence for specific intelligences (s), measures of specific skills in narrow domains, including creativity and practical intelligence.
• The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used IQ test for adults.
• Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working memory capacity are related to IQ.
• Between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role than does environment in creating IQ differences among individuals.
• Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental factors such as poverty.
• Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, assess, manage, and control one’s emotions. People who are better able to regulate their behaviors and emotions are also more successful in their personal and social encounters.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

• Consider your own IQ. Are you smarter than the average person? What specific intelligences do you think you excel in?
• Did your parents try to improve your intelligence? Do you think their efforts were successful?
• Consider the meaning of the Flynn effect. Do you think people are really getting smarter?
• Give some examples of how emotional intelligence (or the lack of it) influences your everyday life and the lives of other people you know.

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The Power of Intelligence

July 10, 2007  |  Eliezer Yudkowsky  |  Analysis

In our skulls we carry around 3 pounds of slimy, wet, greyish tissue, corrugated like crumpled toilet paper. You wouldn’t think, to look at the unappetizing lump, that it was some of the most powerful stuff in the known universe. If you’d never seen an anatomy textbook, and you saw a brain lying in the street, you’d say “Yuck!” and try not to get any of it on your shoes. Aristotle thought the brain was an organ that cooled the blood. It doesn’t look dangerous.

Five million years ago, the ancestors of lions ruled the day, the ancestors of wolves roamed the night. The ruling predators were armed with teeth and claws – sharp, hard cutting edges, backed up by powerful muscles. Their prey, in self-defense, evolved armored shells, sharp horns, poisonous venoms, camouflage. The war had gone on through hundreds of eons and countless arms races. Many a loser had been removed from the game, but there was no sign of a winner. Where one species had shells, another species would evolve to crack them; where one species became poisonous, another would evolve to tolerate the poison. Each species had its private niche – for who could live in the seas and the skies and the land at once? There was no ultimate weapon and no ultimate defense and no reason to believe any such thing was possible.

Then came the Day of the Squishy Things.

They had no armor. They had no claws. They had no venoms.

If you saw a movie of a nuclear explosion going off, and you were told an Earthly life form had done it, you would never in your wildest dreams imagine that the Squishy Things could be responsible. After all, Squishy Things aren’t radioactive.

In the beginning, the Squishy Things had no fighter jets, no machine guns, no rifles, no swords. No bronze, no iron. No hammers, no anvils, no tongs, no smithies, no mines. All the Squishy Things had were squishy fingers – too weak to break a tree, let alone a mountain. Clearly not dangerous. To cut stone you would need steel, and the Squishy Things couldn’t excrete steel. In the environment there were no steel blades for Squishy fingers to pick up. Their bodies could not generate temperatures anywhere near hot enough to melt metal. The whole scenario was obviously absurd.

And as for the Squishy Things manipulating DNA – that would have been beyond ridiculous. Squishy fingers are not that small. There is no access to DNA from the Squishy level; it would be like trying to pick up a hydrogen atom. Oh, technically it’s all one universe, technically the Squishy Things and DNA are part of the same world, the same unified laws of physics, the same great web of causality. But let’s be realistic: you can’t get there from here.

Even if Squishy Things could someday evolve to do any of those feats, it would take thousands of millennia. We have watched the ebb and flow of Life through the eons, and let us tell you, a year is not even a single clock tick of evolutionary time. Oh, sure, technically a year is six hundred trillion trillion trillion trillion Planck intervals. But nothing ever happens in less than six hundred million trillion trillion trillion trillion Planck intervals, so it’s a moot point. The Squishy Things, as they run across the savanna now, will not fly across continents for at least another ten million years; no one could have that much sex.

Now explain to me again why an Artificial Intelligence can’t do anything interesting over the Internet unless a human programmer builds it a robot body.

I have observed that someone’s flinch-reaction to “intelligence” – the thought that crosses their mind in the first half-second after they hear the word “intelligence” – often determines their flinch-reaction to the Singularity. Often they look up the keyword “intelligence” and retrieve the concept booksmarts – a mental image of the Grand Master chessplayer who can’t get a date, or a college professor who can’t survive outside academia.

“It takes more than intelligence to succeed professionally,” people say, as if charisma resided in the kidneys, rather than the brain. “Intelligence is no match for a gun,” they say, as if guns had grown on trees. “Where will an Artificial Intelligence get money?” they ask, as if the first Homo sapiens had found dollar bills fluttering down from the sky, and used them at convenience stores already in the forest. The human species was not born into a market economy. Bees won’t sell you honey if you offer them an electronic funds transfer. The human species imagined money into existence, and it exists – for us, not mice or wasps – because we go on believing in it.

I keep trying to explain to people that the archetype of intelligence is not Dustin Hoffman in The Rain Man , it is a human being, period. It is squishy things that explode in a vacuum, leaving footprints on their moon. Within that grey wet lump is the power to search paths through the great web of causality, and find a road to the seemingly impossible – the power sometimes called creativity.

People – venture capitalists in particular – sometimes ask how, if the Machine Intelligence Research Institute successfully builds a true AI, the results will be commercialized. This is what we call a framing problem.

Or maybe it’s something deeper than a simple clash of assumptions. With a bit of creative thinking, people can imagine how they would go about travelling to the Moon, or curing smallpox, or manufacturing computers. To imagine a trick that could accomplish all these things at once seems downright impossible – even though such a power resides only a few centimeters behind their own eyes. The gray wet thing still seems mysterious to the gray wet thing.

And so, because people can’t quite see how it would all work, the power of intelligence seems less real; harder to imagine than a tower of fire sending a ship to Mars. The prospect of visiting Mars captures the imagination. But if one should promise a Mars visit, and also a grand unified theory of physics, and a proof of the Riemann Hypothesis, and a cure for obesity, and a cure for cancer, and a cure for aging, and a cure for stupidity – well, it just sounds wrong, that’s all.

And well it should. It’s a serious failure of imagination to think that intelligence is good for so little. Who could have imagined, ever so long ago, what minds would someday do? We may not even know what our real problems are.

But meanwhile, because it’s hard to see how one process could have such diverse powers, it’s hard to imagine that one fell swoop could solve even such prosaic problems as obesity and cancer and aging.

Well, one trick cured smallpox and built airplanes and cultivated wheat and tamed fire. Our current science may not agree yet on how exactly the trick works, but it works anyway. If you are temporarily ignorant about a phenomenon, that is a fact about your current state of mind, not a fact about the phenomenon. A blank map does not correspond to a blank territory. If one does not quite understand that power which put footprints on the Moon, nonetheless, the footprints are still there – real footprints, on a real Moon, put there by a real power. If one were to understand deeply enough, one could create and shape that power. Intelligence is as real as electricity. It’s merely far more powerful, far more dangerous, has far deeper implications for the unfolding story of life in the universe – and it’s a tiny little bit harder to figure out how to build a generator.

Did you like this post? You may enjoy our other Analysis posts, including:

• Ability to solve long-horizon tasks correlates with wanting things in the behaviorist sense
• Thoughts on Human Models
• Russell and Norvig on Friendly AI
• More Christiano, Cotra, and Yudkowsky on AI progress
• ... and many more .

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Types of Intelligence and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Raquel lozano-blasco.

1 Department of Psychology and Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Science Education, University of Zaragoza, 50001 Zaragoza, Spain

Alberto Quílez-Robres

2 Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Human Sciences and Education, University of Zaragoza, 22003 Huesca, Spain

Pablo Usán

3 Department of Psychology and Sociology, Faculty of Education, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain

Carlos Salavera

4 Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Science Education, University of Zaragoza, 50001 Zaragoza, Spain

Raquel Casanovas-López

5 Instituto de Estudios Interdisciplinarios de la Niñez y la Adolescencia (INEINA), Universidad Nacional, Heredia 40101, Costa Rica

The concept of intelligence has been extensively studied, undergoing an evolution from a unitary concept to a more elaborate and complex multidimensional one. In addition, several research studies have focused their efforts for decades on the study of intelligence as a predictor of academic performance of students at different educational stages, being a stable and highly relevant predictor along with other variables such as executive functions, social context, culture or parental guardianship. Thus, the present study, based on a systematic review and meta-analysis, includes 27 studies with a total sample of 42,061 individuals. The main objective was to analyse the relationship between intelligence and academic performance using different predictive models that include moderating variables such as country of origin, type of intelligence, gender and age. The findings of this research highlight the significant, positive and moderate relationship between intelligence and academic performance (r = 0.367; p < 0.001), highlighting the predictive capacity on school performance when the type of intelligence (general and implicit; 35%) or the country of origin (45%) is taken as a moderating variable, with the explanatory models on age or sex not being significant. Therefore, it can be concluded that intelligence, in addition to being a good predictor of academic performance, is influenced depending on the type of intelligence or theoretical model taken as a reference, and also depending on the country or culture of origin.

1. Introduction

The educational community has traditionally and extensively studied academic performance. This concept is closely related to the teaching–learning process focused on a specific goal: achievement in school ( Von Stumm and Ackerman 2013 ). Therefore, issues such as school success or failure, discouragement and dropout have produced a great deal of research ( Balkis 2018 ). Proof of this would be the study by Nieto Martín ( 2008 ), who reviewed 654 studies conducted between 1970 and 1990. The author stresses that the variables under study and related to academic success have changed over time; for example, intelligence was traditionally studied from a single-factor point of view, but later this approach was expanded and, at present, other variables such as executive functions, motivation or self-esteem and self-efficacy are at the forefront of the study. In addition, the new century has seen the emergence of new methodological variables such as group collaboration, collaborative work, project-based learning and the length of the school day. The literature has traditionally categorised these variables as contextual or personal: socio-environmental variables (family, friends, colleagues), institutional variables (school, school organisation, teachers) and instructional variables (content, methods, tasks). In addition, another group included are cognitive (intelligence, learning styles) and motivational (self-image, goals, values) variables ( Quílez-Robres et al. 2021b ). Therefore, academic performance can be understood as a construct that includes quantitative and qualitative values (quantitative if we talk about numerical measurement, test results and qualitative if we talk about the development of skills, values and competences), related to knowledge, attitudes and values developed by the student in the teaching–learning process” ( Navarro 2003, pp. 15–16 ).

However, this study focuses on the relationship and explanation of academic performance through intelligence, understood as different types of intelligence. There is extensive literature on the relationship, prediction and explanation of intelligence with academic performance. However, studies concerning intelligence have expanded conventional psychometric notions by introducing modalities such as crystallised intelligence, fluid intelligence, emotional intelligence, multiple intelligences, etc., in an attempt to provide greater predictive validity in reference to academic achievement ( Sternberg 2019 ).

The conceptual definitions of intelligence are diverse. For ( Quílez-Robres et al. 2021a ) it consists of the ability to understand and adapt to solve everyday problems. On the other hand, for Plomin and Deary ( 2015 ), intelligence has a biological substrate that varies according to individuals and cultures, being the potential that facilitates learning, planning, reasoning, adaptation and decision-making.

Catell ( 1963 ) differentiated between two kinds of intelligence: fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence and suggested that intelligence is composed of different capacities that form general intelligence and that are complementary. Crystallised intelligence is the result of education and culture and therefore depends directly on the individual’s prior knowledge and ability to learn ( Nisbett et al. 2012 ) and fluid intelligence with a genetic component is the ability to solve problems through non-verbal abstract reasoning and adaptation to different contexts ( Nisbett et al. 2012 ). In addition, it is linked to individual learning and memory ( Amin et al. 2015 ). The latter is considered as one of the main predictors of individual academic achievement according to several studies in different settings ( Deary et al. 2007 ; Geary 2011 ; Laidra et al. 2007 ; Monir et al. 2016 ; Verbitskaya et al. 2020 ). Rabbitt and Lowe ( 2000 ) suggest that fluid intelligence is altered in the ageing process, while crystallised intelligence remains stable.

The study of intelligence expanded, and Gardner ( 1985 ) proposed an alternative and a critique of the general intelligence approach by elaborating the theory of multiple intelligences. He proposed the existence of several independent intelligences that interact and mutually enhance each other, such as linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, kinaesthetic bodily and others. Thus, most students possess more than one. However, Singh et al. ( 2017 ) report that only logical–mathematical, spatial and musical intelligence are related to IQ. These results are consistent with the research of Castejon et al. ( 2010 ) and Visser et al. ( 2006 ), who reported a strong relationship between cognitive component intelligences and general intelligence.

Sternberg ( 1985 ) elaborated the Triarchic Theory of intelligence, establishing three categories within it: competency, experiential and contextual. Thus, the acquisition and storage of information, the ability to encode, combine and compare that information and finally the adaptation of information to context were involved. He expanded on this theory and called it successful intelligence, which combined ability, exploitation, adaptation, creativity, etc. It is about being able to solve problems, and depending on the way it is done, analytical intelligence (both familiar and abstract problems), creative intelligence (formulating ideas, problems of a novel nature) and practical intelligence (applying ideas and analysis effectively) will appear ( Sternberg et al. 2010 ).

The theories of Gardner ( 1985 ) and Sternberg ( 1985 ) were fundamental for the emergence of the theory of emotional intelligence since these ideas underlay the new concept that would germinate in the theories of Salovey and Mayer ( 1990 ), but it would be Goleman ( 1996 ) who popularised it by stating that emotional intelligence consists of a series of skills such as discovering, recognising and managing emotions and feelings ( Goleman 1999 ). The relevant role of emotional aspects in academic results is evident in previous studies such as the meta-analysis conducted by Molero-Puertas et al. ( 2020 ), which concludes with a significant effect size between emotional intelligence and academic performance. Other research suggests that this variable is a good predictor of academic achievement at different educational stages and even indicates that it is second only to general intelligence ( MacCann et al. 2020 ; Perera and DiGiacomo 2013 ; Sanchez-Ruiz et al. 2013 ).

Finally, implicit intelligence, regarded as the self-perception of intelligence grounded in everyday experience, is a key variable for understanding academic performance ( Enea-Drapeau et al. 2017 ). Since this includes a component of expectation as cognitive self-representation, some authors point out that the relationship is especially direct in the early years and concerning specific performance areas rather than global performance ( Dinger et al. 2013 ; Geary 2011 ; Priess-Groben and Hyde 2017 ; Wigfield et al. 2016 ); other authors argue that implicit intelligence is a good predictor for academic performance in maths ( Kriegbaum et al. 2015 ; Steinmayr and Spinath 2009 ); for Steinmayr et al. ( 2019a ) and Lotz et al. ( 2018 ), this predictive value extends over all areas, as confidence in one’s own abilities can be a more important variable than cognitive abilities in the analysis of academic performance. In this sense, implicit theories are presented as definitions, or theories that scientists have about some phenomena ( Sternberg 1985 ). Precisely in these beliefs lies the importance of understanding people’s implicit theories. This is important because these beliefs guide people’s attitudes and behaviours and, as discussed in various theories of the development of talent and intelligence, intelligence is not composed of a single factor but is multidimensional, with contextual, creative and motivational aspects related to people’s behaviours intervening in its conception. The theory of social cognition indicates that beliefs determine attitudes and willingness to engage in certain behaviours ( Pintrich 2002 ). Undoubtedly, these aspects mean that implicit intelligence must be taken into account in relation to academic performance and learning.

With regard to academic performance, its prediction has been a relevant topic for a long time and different variables have been analysed to help explain the academic results of schoolchildren. Different research has related it to individual characteristics of basic cognitive processes such as processing speed, working memory, fluid intelligence, etc. ( El Jaziz et al. 2020 ; Kiuru et al. 2012 ; Kuncel et al. 2004 ; Richardson et al. 2012 ; Sternberg et al. 2001 ). However, academic performance as a product of learning serves as an indicator of the level of learning ( Alquichire R and Arrieta R 2018 ). For Ariza et al. ( 2018 ), it is nothing more than a measure of what students have learned as a result of an educational process. He defines it as the ability to respond to a series of educational stimuli, which in turn is interpreted on the basis of the established objectives.

In view of previous research, it is not new that measures of general intelligence predict academic performance ( Deary et al. 2007 ; Quílez-Robres et al. 2021b ; Sternberg 2019 ). Systematic study has resulted in the predictive value of intelligence in the educational world and has pointed to significant correlations with different variables, but there is also some variation depending on the educational stage analysed ( Sternberg et al. 2001 ). While agreeing that intelligence is one of the most important variables in academic performance as it has a direct impact on learning ( González et al. 2008 ), it should be noted that it does not behave uniformly, as the correlation between intelligence and academic performance decreases when the student reaches the university stage ( Ren et al. 2015 ).

If the aim is to increase the predictive value of the different measures of intelligence, one possibility is to broaden the concept of intelligence itself. A review of the scientific literature shows that there are no studies that integrate the different types of intelligence theorised in reference to academic achievement. This meta-analysis aims to analyse the relationship between different types of intelligence and academic performance from a meta-analytical perspective by reviewing the scientific literature with a broad conception of the concept of intelligence, taking into account the studies that indicate that there is no single way of understanding and defining this construct.

A research registry protocol ( Figure 1 ) was established following the Cochrane systematic review manual in Higgins and Green ( 2011 ) and PRISMA ( 2015 ). Inclusion criteria were determined using the specifications set out by Ausina and Sánchez-Meca ( 2015 ) and Moreau and Gamble ( 2020 ): (a) Research methodology: quantitative, correlational, longitudinal, cross-sectional and clinical. (b) Time frame: 2000–2020. (c) Methodological rigour: studies indexed in prestigious rankings (Scimago Journal and Country Rank). (d) Measuring instruments: psychometric tests rated in academic publications and in accordance with the culture of the sample. (e) Language: English.

Flowchart of search methodology.

The exclusion criteria were established according to the manuals of Ausina and Sánchez-Meca ( 2015 ) and Moreau and Gamble ( 2020 ): (a) Adult population with previous disorders or pathologies, including, however, research in which there were control groups without pathologies. (b) The appearance of imprecise, poorly defined data, unclear methodology or with indications of non-compliance with ethical principles, as well as statistical or psychometric errors in the measurement of the tests, following the indications of Hunter and Schmidt ( 2004 ) and Friese and Frankenbach ( 2020 ).

The search strategy was carried out using the criteria of Botella and Gambara ( 2002 ), Ausina and Sánchez-Meca ( 2015 ) and PRISMA ( 2015 ). Three databases were used: Psycoinfo, Pubmed and Science Direct, and research was performed in February 2021. The Boleean action was “academic achievement” and “intelligence” in the range 2000–2020.

Eligibility criteria for sample selection were defined according to the Cochrane systematic review manual in Higgins and Green ( 2011 ) and PRISMA ( 2015 ). It should be noted that manual coding was carried out by reviewing each article returned by Boolean actions according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Firstly, the abstract was screened so that only those that dealt with the subject of the study were selected. On the other hand, the criteria of methodological rigour and measurement instruments led to the exclusion of a significant percentage of the research. This was due to the absence of standardised instruments or the incorrect measurement of the study parameters according to the pre-established psychometric test.

The transformation of all means to Fisher Z ( Martín-Andrés and Luna del Castillo 2004 ), the execution of the relevant analyses (model comparison and meta-regression), the study of heterogeneity, the performance of the Eggers test for publication bias and the obtaining of figures were carried out using the CMA statistical software.

3.1. Demographic Description

In recent years (2000–2020), the relationship between types of intelligence and academic performance at different educational stages has been studied in depth. In total, the meta-analysis ( Table 1 ) consists of 27 studies with k = 47 samples from Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Oceania. According to Bonett ’s ( 2006 ) criteria, the sample k = 47 exceeds the minimum required to avoid distortion of the upper confidence limit. On the other hand, heterogeneity is evident in the sample sizes, with the smallest sample size being 81 participants and the largest 4036 participants.

Sociodemographic data.

The total sample is made up of 42,061 participants, 47.16% of whom are male and 48.99% female. In this sense, it is necessary to clarify that the two studies do not provide data on the sex of their participants. The average age of the participants is 16.45 years, although some studies did not report a specific average age, but rather a range of years or school years, making it necessary to take the arithmetic mean to be able to manage the data quantitatively.

In terms of culture, social anthropology points to the need to attend to cultural diversity ( Molano 2007 ). In this study, 30.13% are Asian (China, Indonesia and Malaysia), 4.73% are Central European (Germany, UK), 37.37% are Eastern European (Russia), 6.01% are Northern European (Norway and Finland), 2.32% are North African (Morocco and Egypt), 18.83% are American (USA and Barbados) and 0.57% are from Oceania (Australia).

3.2. Statistical Analysis

The aim of this meta-analysis is to study the relationship between type of intelligence and student achievement, but encompassing different educational stages and different contexts. To this end, 108 effect sizes were coded, taking as a reference the data based on Pearson’s r and their subsequent treatment using the CMA statistical programme.

Figure 2 (forest plot) shows the effect size with a 99% confidence interval (0.302–0.428, p = 0.001) for the different studies, the effect size being r = 0.367, p = 0.001. In other words, a moderate level of correlation is obtained according to Cohen between the intelligence presented by the students and academic performance. The ethical criteria set out by Moreau and Gamble ( 2020 ) are followed when exposing all the conversions, opting for a policy of “open materials”.

Forest Plot.

On the other hand, it is crucial to study the heterogeneity of the sample according to Cochrane in Higgins and Green ( 2011 ). The Q statistic of Dersimonian and Laird ( 1986 ) (Q = 2478.71, df = 46, p < 0.0001) describes a high variability, i.e., the homogeneity hypothesis is rejected. The statistic I2 = 98.144% explains the percentage of variability resulting from heterogeneity and not from chance. In other words, the sample is highly heterogeneous in its statistical nature ( Higgins et al. 2013 ). Consistently, the Random model or random effects model is applied ( Bonett 2006 ; Martín-Andrés and Luna del Castillo 2004 ). Although the inclusion and exclusion criteria contemplate the reliability and methodological and psychometric quality of the research, the Egg’s test with 99% reliability was carried out to study the effect of bias ( Botella and Gambara 2002 ; Ausina and Sánchez-Meca 2015 ). The results of the test show the inexistence of publication bias with a 99% confidence interval ( p -value 1 tailed = 0.07; p -value 2 tailed = 0.15) ( Egger et al. 1997 ). The standard error value (SE = 2.04) reaffirms the absence of bias, as it is very close to the regression line ( Martín-Andrés and Luna del Castillo 2004 ).

The diversity shown in the Q and I2 statistics could be a sign of extreme data; however, the tight confidence interval (0.302–0.428, p = 0.001) limits this heterogeneity. These results are consistent with the Funnel Plot graph ( Figure 3 ) where the variability and heterogeneity of the sample are reaffirmed. This situation reiterates the diversity of studies, as concluded by the Egger test, without any bias effect. However, it should be noted that the apparent variability could be affected by the transformation to Fisher Z -values since x-values >0.5 tend to be more distorted on the T-Student curve than, in comparison, on the normal curve, although this transformation is accepted by the scientific community for meta-analysis methodology ( Martín-Andrés and Luna del Castillo 2004 ).

Funnel plot and standard error.

3.3. Moderating Variables and Meta-Regression Analysis

The state-of-the-art research shows the existence of moderating factors, which is why it is considered necessary to establish the study of seven moderating variables: type of intelligence, type of performance, age, country, male sex, female sex and geographical distribution. The objective pursued through the use of both techniques is to statistically determine the reason for such heterogeneity ( Ausina and Sánchez-Meca 2015 ; Jak and Cheung 2020 ). In this way, a comparison of models is established (see Table 2 ) by generating seven models: (1) type of intelligence; (2) type of performance; (3) age; (4) country; (5) male gender; (6) female gender; (7) geographical distribution.

Comparison of models: Random effects (MM), Z distribution, Fisher’s Z.

The first model, which specifies the type of intelligence, explains 35% of academic performance, with an efficiency level of over 99%, although, as model 2 shows, the type of performance has no effect. In other words, it is intelligence that determines student academic performance and success, but doing well in these subjects does not seem to affect intelligence overall. On the other hand, the models of age, gender and geographical distribution do not explain the relationship between the two factors to any extent. However, there are important differences between countries, which may be explained by diversity in the education system. Association with a given nation accounts for 45% of the variability in the sample ( Table 2 ).

It is therefore necessary to study in greater depth the type of intelligence that seems to determine academic performance. For this reason, a meta-regression ( Table 3 ) is carried out in which it is evident that general intelligence (Z = 2.00, p = 0.04) and implicit intelligence (Z = 3.69, p = 0.00) are the ones that stand out, showing a clear difference.

Meta-regression of model 1: Intelligence.

As far as the different countries are concerned, significant differences are found in the comparison models. Therefore, it is necessary to perform a meta-regression (see Table 4 ) that points out the differences between education systems. In this case, the countries that differ from the sample are China, Indonesia and the UK (United Kingdom).

Meta-regression of model 2: countries.

4. Discussion

Given that the review of the scientific literature indicates that there is no single way of understanding, defining and analysing the construct of intelligence, this meta-analysis analyses the relationship between intelligence and academic performance in terms of the different types of intelligence studied in previous research, as well as the existence of models of moderating variables that clarify their predictive nature. Therefore, effect size, type of intelligence (general, crystallised, fluid, implicit, emotional, etc.), age, gender, country of residence or geographical area are of interest for this study. Of all these variables, effect size, general intelligence, implicit intelligence (R 2 = 0.35; p < 0.001) and country of residence (R 2 = 0.45; p < 0.001) are those that appear to be relevant and significant.

From the results obtained, a number of factors stand out, such as the relationship between academic performance and intelligence with a moderate effect size (0.367; significance < 0.001). Previous research addressing the interrelations between intelligence and academic performance indicates that it is the most stable and powerful predictor of school performance (r = 0.5) ( Geary 2011 ; Laidra et al. 2007 ; Luo et al. 2006 ; Rodic et al. 2015 ). These results are corroborated in the meta-analysis of Cortés Pascual et al. ( 2019 ) who equate it with that obtained for executive functions. They point out that intelligence is decisive for new learning and, on the contrary, executive functions are primordial for repetitive and competence-focused learning and also show their relationship in different educational disciplines.

Another noteworthy element of the research is that when analysing moderating variables and comparing models, it is found that intelligence determines that the relationship with academic performance is unidirectional. That is, intelligence is a good predictor of academic achievement, but not the other way around, so the predictive model of intelligence type explains 35% of the variance. Consistent with this result, Buckle et al. ( 2005 ) assigned it a predictive power of 26%. This is in line with previous research findings that intelligence is the best predictor of academic success ( Blankson et al. 2019 ; Erath et al. 2015 ; Li et al. 2017 ; Quílez-Robres et al. 2021a ; Ren et al. 2015 ; Rhodes et al. 2017 ; Tikhomirova et al. 2020 ). However, most studies have related it to the cognitive dimension ( Castejon et al. 2010 ; Visser et al. 2006 ), marginalising the behavioural and emotional aspects ( Gioia et al. 2017 ). Therefore, it is necessary to consider other facets of intelligence, as they are nothing more than different capacities that complement each other ( Catell 1963 ).

From the meta-regression of the intelligence model, general and implicit intelligence emerge with significance ( p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). Implicit intelligence is decisive in school outcomes, as the beliefs that are elaborated about one’s own intelligence and the nature of intelligence guide student behaviours towards achieving success or failure at school ( Chen and Tutwiler 2017 ; Lotz et al. 2018 ; Steinmayr et al. 2019b ). Thus, it is considered relevant for its efficacy in considering that cognitive ability is not a fixed trait but has an adaptive quality that gives it incremental strength. This malleability performs a protective function against school failure, as there is confidence in one’s own abilities. However, it seems that this incremental capacity decreases with age ( Chen and Tutwiler 2017 ). In the same line of research, Kornilova et al. ( 2009 ) found that implicit intelligence predicts general intelligence, as by adopting learning goals and increasing their competence, students overcome setbacks and seek new challenges. It should also be noted that both general and implicit intelligence show an indirect effect with academic success through other variables such as motivation or executive functions ( Aditomo 2015 ). Furthermore, it should be noted that general intelligence has traditionally been broken down into fluid and crystallised intelligence. “Crystallised” intelligence has been considered one of the most significant predictors of individual achievement in different contexts, age ranges and educational conditions ( Deary et al. 2007 ; Nisbett et al. 2012 ; Verbitskaya et al. 2020 ), and “fluid” intelligence has been found to be a better predictor of processing speed tests ( Luo et al. 2006 ) and mathematics performance ( Blankson et al. 2019 ; Sarver et al. 2012 ).

Neither emotional intelligence nor the different types of multiple intelligences show remarkable values in this research. In this regard, the scientific literature is not conclusive. Some studies find that emotional intelligence occupies a pre-eminent position behind general or global intelligence ( MacCann et al. 2020 ; Perera and DiGiacomo 2013 ) and explain that this type of intelligence is related to academic performance due to its importance in promoting adaptive behaviours ( Chew et al. 2013 ; Fayombo 2012 ; Usán Supervía and Quílez Robres 2021 ). The perception of positive interpersonal and intrapersonal emotional intelligence substantially explains academic success, as it comprises learner ability to control, regulate and manage the demands of the academic context ( Cheshire et al. 2015 ; Chew et al. 2013 ; Kornilova et al. 2018 ; Okwuduba et al. 2021 ; Romero et al. 2014 ). However, the research that studies this claim presents mixed results since some authors such as Engin ( 2017 ) or Zhoc et al. ( 2018 ) did not observe associations between academic performance and emotional intelligence. On the other hand, and within the multiple intelligences, musical intelligence has been related to academic performance, especially through cross-sectional data, from which it is difficult to infer a generalisation of cause and effect with respect to school achievement ( Müllensiefen et al. 2015 ; Schellenberg 2011 ). This is despite the fact that Castejon et al. ( 2010 ) and Visser et al. ( 2006 ) point to the existence of a relationship between some of the multiple intelligences and general intelligence due to their cognitive component.

Concerning the type of “perfomance”, comparison analysis model showed its non-significance. However, it is necessary to point out that the performance types are not homogeneous in the meta-sample. There is a large amount of general performance, but there are hardly any cases of music or mathematics. Despite its non-significance, investigation of this aspect in further research is considered necessary, and nevertheless, there are studies that advocate the importance of this variable.

As for gender and age, they are not moderating variables, perhaps influenced by the type of assessment of these variables and the different theoretical concepts of greater or lesser importance assigned to the relationship between them. On the other hand, there are difficulties in predicting the role of gender and age in implicit intelligence ( Diseth et al. 2014 ), but Robins and Trzesniewski ( 2005 ) point out that there is a strong relationship in favour of girls and at an older age. These results can be related to emotional intelligence and higher perceived self-efficacy ( King et al. 2012 ).

As noted above, the country of residence model is the moderating variable that explains 45% of the variance, increasing the predictive power of the intelligence type model. These results are consistent with previous research pointing to the importance of adaptation to different contexts ( Deary et al. 2007 ; Verbitskaya et al. 2020 ) or those indicating that the relationship between intelligence and academic performance was the result of education and the culture in which one was immersed ( Nisbett et al. 2012 ; Plomin and Deary 2015 ; Rodic et al. 2015 ). In his theories, Sternberg, for example, pointed out the importance of adaptation to the context of different skills and abilities, as well as of the differences originating in the beliefs of one’s own abilities in their contribution to academic achievement as a function of the cultural environment that generate individual profiles with different strengths and weaknesses ( Sternberg 2019 ; Sternberg et al. 2001 ). Ultimately, intelligence is related to social competence ( Sternberg 1985 ).

When analysing the meta-regression across countries, three countries are significant: Indonesia, the United Kingdom (UK) and China. Indonesia is considered a very deterministic culture (if you are not very smart, you do not pass) ( Aditomo 2015 ). On the other hand, the United Kingdom (UK) as a model of the Anglo-Saxon education system associates intelligence with linguistic ability and problem-solving skills ( Sternberg 1985 ). Finally, in China, authoritarian filial piety beliefs are associated with an entity view of intelligence, which impairs the students’ academic performance ( Chen and Wong 2014 ). Cultural views of motivational processes can shed light on the ways in which motivational beliefs develop as a product of cultural or socialisation processes, which, in turn, contribute to or determine the students’ academic success ( Chen and Wong 2014 ; Li et al. 2017 ). These differences by country of origin are likely to point to the meanings attributed to intelligence by different cultural groups. There are indications that individuals from Western countries attach a much broader meaning to the concept of intelligence (skills, context, etc.) and, therefore, when studying subjects from non-Western countries, consideration should be given to using specific domains that provide greater certainty to the results, always bearing in mind that the mindset about intelligence and academic ability is very different ( Aditomo 2015 ). As Carroll ( 1992 ) points out, intelligence is a concept within the mind of a society and personal references are those of each culture where individuals are immersed. Some cultures such as the Asian ones continue to use teaching–learning methods based on cognitive aspects such as memory and one’s own intelligence, while the European and Anglo-Saxon models are based on the development of competence through social interaction ( Quílez-Robres et al. 2021a ).

Other reason may be due to different factors such as, for example, the statistical weight of the samples, or others related to cultural elements such as different understandings of academic performance and different assessments of different types of intelligence.

Furthermore, following Serpell ( 2000 ), culture can be approached from three perspectives: culture as a language, culture as a womb, and culture as a forum. According to the language perspective, culture would constitute a distinct system of meanings in the mind within which the concept of intelligence would be embedded. According to the womb perspective, human cultures create environments that nurture personal growth and stimulate the development of human intelligence. Finally, the forum view, which is based on the interaction of members of a community organising aspects of education and constructing new meanings about intelligence, proposes research on cognitive development as a function of culture.

On the other hand, Sternberg and Grigorenko ( 2004 ) indicate that intelligence cannot be understood completely outside of cultural control or influence. There are behaviours that are considered intelligent in some cultures, and those same behaviours are considered unintelligent in other cultures. Furthermore, each culture has implicit (folk) theories of intelligence, and therefore the aspects that fall under this concept vary from culture to culture. In this sense, the three influential cultures in this study belong to two different cultural approaches: individualistic (UK) versus collectivistic (China and Indonesia). Moreover, these countries have different ways of understanding academic performance and attach different degrees of importance to intelligence in academic, social and occupational performance ( Quílez-Robres et al. 2021b ).

5. Conclusions

This research was conducted to identify the ways in which different aspects of student intelligence contribute to differences in academic performance. Of the seven models studied, the country of residence model was found to be the most important predictor of academic performance, explaining 45% of the variance, followed by the type of intelligence model, which explains 35% of the variance. The latter model highlights the importance of general intelligence and implicit intelligence for student grades in academic subjects. The results therefore extend knowledge about the role of intelligence for academic achievement. Implicit intelligence scores better in relation to academic achievement than global intelligence, highlighting the importance of one’s beliefs in one’s own abilities. Students with similar intelligence scores, with identical values and the same prior attainment will see improved academic outcomes by believing in their own competencies and abilities ( Steinmayr et al. 2019a ). If one concludes that academic performance is determined by a multitude of variables including psychological factors that influence student response to overcome setbacks, the evidence points to intelligence as a predictor of success, but also, as this research shows, to a positive mindset in relation to one’s own intelligence and academic abilities. This positive mindset will also be established by the context in which their academic life takes place, i.e., society, beliefs, values, education system, etc. ( Aditomo 2015 ; Hong et al. 1999 ). Therefore, the results of this study point the way to implement interventions aimed at improving the students’ own beliefs about their subject-specific mastery skills.

Finally, we conclude with the need to expand the study in order to limit the term intelligence. What would its general structure be, and how do the different types of intelligence add significance to the general and traditional concept? What conceptual divergences exist between the different theories? Do all these concepts have the same impact on new or repeated learning, on general and specific?

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the University of Zaragoza for their support in this research.

Funding Statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.Q.-R. and R.L.-B.; methodology, A.Q.-R.; software, R.L.-B.; validation, R.C.-L., P.U. and C.S.; formal analysis, R.L.-B.; investigation, R.L.-B.; resources, A.Q.-R.; data curation, A.Q.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, R.L.-B.; writing—review and editing, A.Q.-R.; visualization, R.C.-L.; supervision, C.S.; project administration, P.U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Mia Belle Frothingham

Author, Researcher, Science Communicator

BA with minors in Psychology and Biology, MRes University of Edinburgh

Mia Belle Frothingham is a Harvard University graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Sciences with minors in biology and psychology

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and relationships. It involves being aware of emotions in oneself and others and using this awareness to guide thinking and behavior. Emotionally intelligent individuals can motivate themselves, read social cues, and build strong relationships

Some researchers propose that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others argue it is an inborn characteristic.

The ability to express and manage emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, diagnose, and react to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which one could not understand when a friend felt sad or a classmate was angry.

Why is Emotional Intelligence Critical?

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Having a higher level of emotional intelligence allows one to empathize with others, communicate effectively, and be both self and socially aware. How people respond to themselves and others impacts all types of environments.

Living in this world signifies interacting with many diverse kinds of individuals and constant change with life-changing surprises.

Being emotionally intelligent is key to how one reacts to what life throws. It is furthermore a fundamental element of compassion and comprehending the deeper reasons behind other people’s actions.

It is not the most intelligent people who are the most prosperous or the most fulfilled in life. Many people are academically genius and yet are socially incompetent and unsuccessful in their careers or their intimate relationships.

Intellectual ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. Undoubtedly, IQ can help one get into university, but your Emotional Intelligence (EI) will help one manage stress and emotions when facing final exams.

IQ and EI exist in tandem and are most influential when they build off one another.

Emotional intelligence is also valuable for leaders who set the tone of their organization. If leaders lack emotional intelligence , it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower worker engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While one might excel at one’s job technically, if one cannot effectively communicate with one’s team or collaborate with others, those specialized skills will get neglected.

By mastering emotional intelligence, one can positively impact anywhere and continue to advance one’s position and career in life. EI is vital when dealing with stressful situations like confrontation, change, and obstacles.

Emotional intelligence helps one build stronger relationships, succeed at work or school, and achieve one’s career and personal goals, as well as reduce group stress, defuse conflict, and enhance job satisfaction.

It can also help connect with one’s inner feelings, turn purpose into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to oneself.

During these times, it is essential to remember to practice kindness, and being in touch with our emotions can help us do just that.

Examples of Emotional Intelligence

How does one become emotionally intelligent? Below we will discuss what one can do to learn to improve the skills that are behind emotional intelligence (EI).

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem-solve based on them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

By working on and improving these skills, one can become more emotionally intelligent and, therefore, more successful!

Emotional Awareness and Understanding

Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s own emotions, is a vital emotional intelligence skill. Beyond acknowledging one’s feelings, however, is being conscious of the effect of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on other people.

According to research by Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, 95% of individuals believe they are self-aware. Still, only 10 to 15 percent genuinely are, which can cause problems for the people one interacts with.

Being with people who are not self-aware can be frustrating and lead to increased stress and decreased encouragement.

To become self-aware, one must be capable of monitoring one’s emotions while recognizing different emotional reactions and correctly identifying each distinct emotion.

Self-aware individuals also can recognize the connections between the things they feel and how they act.

These individuals also acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses, are open to new data and experiences, and learn from their exchanges with others.

Furthermore, people who maintain self-awareness have a fine sense of humor, are confident in themselves and their capabilities, and know how others perceive them.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-awareness:

Ask for constructive feedback from others.

Keep a journal of one’s thoughts and feelings.

Practice mindfulness – try meditating.

Pay careful attention to one’s thoughts and emotions.

Pursue one’s passions and do what makes one happy.

Learn new skills and set goals for oneself.

Reflect on one’s experiences and be grateful.

Use positive self-talk daily.

Work on building a growth mindset.

Emotional Self Regulation (Managing Emotions)

In addition to being aware of one’s own emotions and the impact one has on others, emotional intelligence requires one to regulate and manage one’s emotions .

This does not mean taking emotions out of sight and essentially “locking” them away, hence hiding one’s true feelings. It just means waiting for the right time and place to express them. Self-regulation is all about communicating one’s emotions appropriately in context. A reaction tends to be involuntary.

The more in tune one is with one’s emotional intelligence, the easier one can transition from an instant reaction to a well-thought-out response. It is crucial to remember to pause, breathe, compose oneself, and do what it takes to manage one’s emotions.

This could mean anything to oneself, like taking a walk or talking to a friend, so that one can more appropriately and intentionally respond to tension and adversity.

Those proficient in self-regulation tend to be flexible and acclimate well to change. They are also suitable for handling conflict and diffusing uncomfortable or difficult situations.

People with healthy self-regulation skills also tend to have heightened conscientiousness. They reflect on how they influence others and take accountability for their actions.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-regulation:

Look at challenges as opportunities.

Be mindful of thoughts and feelings.

Build distress and anxiety tolerance skills.

Work on accepting reflections and emotions.

Find ways to manage difficult emotions.

Practice communication and social skills.

Recognize that one has a choice in how one responds.

Use cognitive reframing to change emotional responses and thought patterns.

Social Empathy (Perceiving Emotions)

Empathy , or the capability to comprehend how other people are feeling, is crucial to perfecting emotional intelligence.

However, it involves more than just being able to identify the emotional states of others. It also affects one’s responses to people based on this knowledge.

How does one respond when one senses someone is feeling sad or hopeless? One might treat them with extra care and consideration, or one might make a push to lift their mood.

Being empathetic also allows one to understand the authority dynamics that frequently influence social relationships, especially in the workplace.

This is essential for guiding one’s daily interactions with various people. In fact, it is found that empathy ranks as the number one leadership skill.

Leaders proficient in empathy perform more than 40% higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a different study, researchers found that leaders who show more empathy toward their co-workers and constructive criticism are viewed as better performers by their supervisors.

Those competent in this element can recognize who maintains power in different relationships. They also understand how these forces impact feelings and behaviors. Because of this, they can accurately analyze different situations that hinge on such power dynamics.

Here are some tips on improving social empathy:

Be willing to share emotions.

Listen to other people.

Practice meditation.

Engage in a purpose like a community project.

Meet and talk to new people.

Try to imagine yourself in someone else’s place.

Social Skills (Using Emotions)

The ability to interact well with others is another vital aspect of emotional intelligence. Solid social skills allow people to build meaningful relationships with others and develop a more robust understanding of themselves and others.

Proper emotional understanding involves more than just understanding one’s own emotions and those of others. One also needs to put this information to work in one’s daily interactions and communications.

In the workplace or professional settings, managers benefit by being able to build relationships and connections with employees.

Workers benefit from developing a solid rapport with leaders and co-workers. Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it is crucial to address issues as they arise correctly.

Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste almost eight hours of company time on unproductive activities, damaging resources and morale. Essential social skills include active listening , verbal communication, nonverbal communication, leadership , and persuasiveness.

Here are some tips on improving social skills:

Ask open-ended questions.

Find icebreakers that will help start conversations.

Practice good eye contact.

Practice active listening with the entire body.

Notice other people’s social skills.

Show interest in others and ask them personal questions.

Watch one’s body language and that of others.

In The Workplace

Emotional intelligence includes showing genuine compassion, empathizing with the needs of individuals, and encouraging the ongoing personal growth of individuals.

When a leader takes into account the emotions of their followers, they then learn how to best engage with them.

1. Lending a Compassionate Ear to a Frustrated Co-Worker

Employees will inevitably get upset, have bad moods, argue, and just generally have bad days. In practice, compassion, understanding, and awareness are definite signs of emotional intelligence.

Awareness of and reacting to other people’s emotional states shows an understanding that all humans experience intense emotions and says that a person’s feelings matter.

2. Listening to Others Respectfully

Ever been to a conference when it seems like everyone is speaking over each other, trying to get the last word?

This is not only an indication of egos taking over and a lack of consideration for others; these are also indications of there being a lack of emotional intelligence.

When individuals are allowed to speak, and others listen without persistent interruptions, it is a good sign of EI. It shows reciprocal respect between parties and is more likely to lead to a productive conclusion in meetings.

3. Being Flexible

Flexibility is a critical term in organizations today. Building flexibility into how people function can be the difference between keeping the best workers and drifting out the door.

Emotionally intelligent leaders comprehend the changing needs of others and are ready to work with them rather than attempting to impose rigid restrictions on how people go about their work.

They do not expect everyone to work the hours they do, hold the same priorities, or live by precisely the same values.

In Healthcare

1. being patient with hurting individuals.

When in healthcare, it is expected that doctors and nurses will have to manage people in pain. Emotional intelligence not only allows for better patient care but also for better self-care.

For instance, if a patient is lashing out, and one can see that they are in pain, one will be far less likely to take their combativeness personally and treat them better.

2. Acting as the Effective Leader

In healthcare, there is a necessity to have influential leaders, a trusting environment with a helpful team, critical thinking, and quality patient and family-centered care.

A higher emotional intelligence will allow healthcare professionals to respond and react better to patients. Studies have shown a correlation between emotional intelligence and positive patient outcomes.

3. Responding Better to Stressful Situations

Multiple occasions in healthcare involve an urgent situation involving a life or death scenario. Doctors and nurses must check their own emotions.

Being in healthcare is a highly emotional career, and being aware of your feelings when they come up is key to effective self-care.

Interacting with patients can cause overwhelming joy or deep sadness, and these fluctuations can be utterly exhausting.

The ability to deal with these feelings, take breaks, and ask for help when you need it is another example of good emotional intelligence that nurses should practice.

Tips for Improving EI

Be more self-aware.

Awareness of one’s emotions and emotional responses to others can significantly improve one’s emotional intelligence. Knowing when one is feeling anxious or angry can help process and communicate those feelings in a way that promotes healthy results.

Recognize how others feel

Emotional intelligence could start with self-reflection, but measuring how others perceive one’s behavior and communication is essential. Adjusting one’s message based on how one is being received is an integral part of being emotionally intelligent.

Practice active listening

People communicate verbally and nonverbally, so listening and monitoring for potentially positive and negative reactions is essential. Taking the time to hear others also demonstrates a level of respect that can form the basis for healthy relationships.

Communicate clearly

Solid communication skills are critical for emotional intelligence. Knowing what to express or write and when to offer information is crucial for building strong relationships.

For instance, as a manager in a work environment, communicating expectations and goals is required to keep everyone on the same page.

Stay positive

A positive attitude is incredibly infectious. Emotionally intelligent people comprehend the power of positive words, encouraging emails, and friendly gestures. When one can also remain positive in a stressful situation, one can help others stay calm. It can also encourage further problem-solving and collaboration.

Thinking about how others might be feeling is an essential quality of emotional intelligence. It means you can empathize with feelings that one may not be feeling oneself and respond in a way that is respectful and relaxing to others.

Be open-minded

Emotionally intelligent people are comfortable to approach because they are good listeners and can consider and understand other viewpoints. They are also receptive to learning new things and embracing novel ideas.

Listen to feedback

It is essential to be the type of person who can hear feedback, whether it is positive on a recent presentation or more critical advice on how you should commission tasks more efficiently.

Being receptive to feedback means taking responsibility for one’s actions and being willing to improve how one communicates with others.

Stay calm under pressure

It is essential to approach stressful situations with a calm and positive attitude. Pressures can quickly escalate, primarily when people are operating under deadlines, so keeping steady and concentrating on finding a solution will help everyone complete their goals.

History of Emotional Intelligence

In the 1930s, psychologist Edward Thorndike explained the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other individuals.

During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler suggested that different practical elements of intelligence could play a critical role in how successful people are in life.

In the 1950s, the school of thought was known as humanistic psychology, and scholars such as Abraham Maslow concentrated attention on how people could build emotional strength.

Another critical concept to arise in the development of emotional intelligence was the concept of multiple intelligences . This idea was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, presenting the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, broad capacity.

Emotional intelligence did not come into our vernacular until around 1990. The term “emotional intelligence” was first utilized in 1985 as it was presented in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne.

In 1987, there was an article written by Keith Beasley and published in Mensa Magazine that used the term emotional quotient or EQ.

Then in 1990, psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey published their milestone article, Emotional Intelligence , in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality .

They described emotional intelligence as the capability to monitor one’s and others’ feelings and emotions, discriminate among them, and use this knowledge to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Salovey and Mayer also initiated a research study to develop accurate measures of emotional intelligence and explore its significance. For example, they found in one investigation that when a group of people saw an upsetting film, those who ranked high on emotional clarity, or the ability to recognize and label a mood that is being experienced, recovered more quickly.

In a different study, people who scored higher in the ability to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others’ emotions were sufficiently capable of responding flexibly to changes in their social environments and building supportive social networks.

But despite it being a relatively new term, attraction to the concept has grown tremendously. In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is emotional intelligence important in the workplace.

Researchers have indicated that emotional intelligence influences how excellently employees interact with their colleagues, and EI is also considered to play a role in how employees manage stress and conflict.

It also affects overall performance on the job. Other studies have connected emotional intelligence with job satisfaction.

Studies have shown that workers with higher scores on measures of EI also tend to be ranked higher on criteria of interpersonal functioning, leadership abilities, and stress management.

While standard intelligence was associated with leadership success, it alone was not enough. People who are prosperous at work are not just brilliant; they also have a high EI.

But emotional intelligence is not simply for CEOs and senior executives.

It is a quality that is essential at every level of a person’s career, from university students looking for internships to seasoned workers hoping to take on a leadership role.

Emotional intelligence is critical to success if one wants to succeed in the workplace and move up the career ladder.

Can emotional intelligence be taught?

As it turns out, the question whether emotional intelligence can be learned is not a straightforward one to answer.

Some psychologists and researchers claim that emotional intelligence is a skill that is not quickly learned or improved. Other psychologists and researchers, though, believe it can be improved with practice.

One key to improving EI is sustained practice – especially in high-stakes situations. Referring back to the above tips, one could read them and say those guidelines are pretty straightforward.

But, the challenging task is to do these practices in real-time and consistently. It takes practice to develop these skills. Then as you acquire them, you have to rehearse them under stress.

Can emotional intelligence be measured?

Several different assessments have arisen to gauge levels of emotional intelligence. These trials typically fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most abundant because they are the quickest to administer and score. Respondents respond to questions or statements on such tests by rating their behaviors.

For example, on a comment such as “I sense that I understand how others are feeling,” a test-taker might describe the statement as strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree.

On the other hand, ability tests involve people responding to situations and assessing their skills. These tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which a third party rates.

If one is taking an emotional intelligence trial issued by a mental health professional, here are two measures that could be used: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI).

What is the dark side of emotional intelligence?

The dark side of emotional intelligence is using one’s understanding of emotions manipulatively, to deceive, control, or exploit others.

High emotional intelligence can mask hidden agendas, enabling insincere charm or feigned empathy, potentially leading to deceitful or self-serving actions.

Boyatzis, R. E., & Goleman, D. (2011). Emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI): A user guide for accredited practitioners.  Retrieved December ,  17 , 2019.

Eurich, T. (2018). What self-awareness really is (and how to cultivate it).  Harvard Business Review , 1-9.

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . Hachette UK.

Goleman, D. (1996).  Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.  Intelligence, 27 (4), 267-298.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.  Intelligence, 17 (4), 433-442.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (2007).  Mayer-Salovery-Caruso emotional intelligence test . Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Incorporated.

Payne, W. L. (1985). A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence .  Imagination, cognition and personality ,  9 (3), 185-211.

Thorndike, R. L., & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure social intelligence.  Psychological Bulletin ,  34 (5), 275.

Wechsler, D., & Kodama, H. (1949).  Wechsler intelligence scale for children  (Vol. 1). New York: Psychological corporation.

449 Intelligence Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best intelligence topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on intelligence, 📌 simple & easy intelligence essay titles, ✍ writing prompts for intelligence, 🎓 interesting topics to write about intelligence, 📑 good research topics about intelligence.

• Emotional Intelligence To this end, Goleman states that EI is the combination of “emotional centers of the brain and the cognitive centers “.
• Artificial Intelligence: Positive or Negative Innovation? He argues that while humans will still be in charge of a few aspects of life in the near future, their control will be reduced due to the development of artificial intelligence.
• Robots and Artificial Intelligence One the one hand, with artificial intelligence and fully autonomous robots, organizations will be able to optimize their spending and increase the speed of development and production of their commodities.
• Artificial Versus Human Intelligence Human intelligence lies in the basis of such developments and represents the collective knowledge gained from the analysis of experiences people live through.
• Why Artificial Intelligence Will Not Replace Human in Near Future? In that case, the hazards of applying AI in areas related to human well-being necessitate a great deal of attention and algorithm transparency.
• “Action Is the Real Measure of Intelligence” – Napoleon Hill I love to sit for hours in a library just to feel the presence of books around me. I dream of lands I read in books and fantasize of the stories being real.
• The Problem of Artificial Intelligence The introduction of new approaches to work and rest triggered the reconsideration of traditional values and promoted the growth of a certain style of life characterized by the mass use of innovations and their integration […]
• Artificial Intelligence, Its Benefits & Risks One of the most fascinating things about artificial intelligence is that virtually all artificial intelligence assistants respond in feminine voices. Artificial intelligence is expected to feature in the automobile industry since many companies are looking […]
• Artificial Intelligence Transforming the World The possible effects of any program on the community can then be planned for and measured by managers. To conclude, even though most people are unfamiliar with AI, the world is on the verge of […]
• Artificial Intelligence in Self Driving Cars The field of Artificial intelligence is one of the newest areas in science and engineering. When explained in terms of thinking critically, AI is the desired outcome of human effort to make computers think, portrayed […]
• Pros and Cons of Artificial Intelligence I consider Hurley a prominent representative of the opinion that artificial intelligence is not able to change a person and has many weaknesses.
• Artificial Intelligence: Application and Future The programmable digital computer, a device built on the abstract core of mathematical reasoning, was created due to this work in the 1940s.
• Leadership Behavior: Ratan Tata and Emotional Intelligence This shows that Ratan Tata, as a leader, was not eager to compete but rather searched for options to expand the market through acquiring businesses.
• Wechsler’s Scales of Intelligence and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales Compared to the recent Wechsler intelligence measurement scales, Stanford- Binet fifth publication on intelligence tests is the latter and more impressive in measuring individual’s intelligence; the scale was formulated in 2000. However, the Wechsler’s scale […]
• Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Medicine As a result of this review, a better understanding of the current state of artificial intelligence in healthcare settings will be acquired, additionally, the review will function as the analysis for the quality of the […]
• The Effect and Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Consumer Behavior The success of this development incited Turing to publish the article ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ that explained how to create and test intelligent machines. The marketing industry provides a clear insight into the effects and […]
• Artificial Intelligence in the Transportation Industry Following that, key achievements in the transportation business included the introduction of bicycles in the early nineteenth century, automobiles in the 1890s, railroads in the nineteenth century, and airplanes in the twentieth century.
• Artificial Intelligence Managing Human Life Although the above examples explain how humans can use AI to perform a wide range of tasks, it is necessary for stakeholders to control and manage the replication of human intelligence.
• Nature vs. Nurture: Two Approaches to Intelligence After that, the question about the correctness of the models is answered; evidence from recent peer-reviewed journal articles is used in order to demonstrate that the strict classical dichotomy is, apparently, incorrect, and that some […]
• Artificial Intelligence for the Future of Policing To conclude, the implementation of artificial intelligence along with surveillance technologies will help policing maintain control over a big population. Artificial Intelligence allows policing to effectively prevent potential criminal events via the prediction of a […]
• Definitions of Intelligence in Psychology In this case, there are various items that can be used to test the emotional and physical aspects of an individual.
• Artificial Intelligence in the Military The current paper will provide research on the virtues, shortcomings, and perspectives of the use of AI in the military. The issue of the usage of AI in military actions is highly controversial and has […]
• Artificial Intelligence: A Systems Approach That is to say, limitations on innovations should be applied to the degree to which robots and machine intelligence can be autonomous.
• Creative Intelligence Styles’ Comparison and Influence The paper examines the similarities and differences of four styles of creative intelligence and their role in business decision-making. In fact, this is the primary force behind the establishment of our mental models and mindsets, […]
• The Age of Artificial Intelligence (AI) The film “In the Age of AI” exhibits the importance of AI in transforming society. According to the documentary, AI integration in the transport sector has made it easier and safer for people to move […]
• Cultural Intelligence Assessment and Research One of the direct ways to increase cultural intelligence is to improve the knowledge of an individual’s own culture and the culture of people around them.
• Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity The use of AI is regulated by a large amount of documentation, which should take into account the current legislation in the country of use and ethical issues related to AI, many of which have […]
• Intelligence and Character Many think that the major function of educators is to give certain amount of knowledge to young people to make them ready to complete some tasks in the society.
• Intelligence According to the theory which is centered on cognitive development, human beings intelligence is modeled by the cognitive and biological structures.
• The Importance of the Logical – Mathematical Intelligence in Mathematics Teaching This kind of intelligence expresses the ability of a learner to identify a blueprint, form a reason to a specific mathematical answer, and ultimately employ logical thoughts in any kind of response.
• Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Business Management What is the impact of AI integration among businesses on the employees’ motivation and activities? The primary aim of this research is to gain an in-depth understanding of the impact of AI integration among various […]
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children The paper will look at the applicability of the instrument for assessing the cognitive abilities of children giving special attention to how the freedom for distractibility index is applied.
• Artificial Intelligence Advantages and Disadvantages In the early years of the field, AI scientists sort to fully duplicate the human capacities of thought and language on the digital computer.
• Intelligence Quotient – A Measure of Human Intelligence The great divide in competencies refers to the gap that exists between emotions and the body. In addition, it facilitates the growth of emotional intelligence that reflects the combination of thoughts and feelings.
• Artificial Intelligence: The Trend in the Evolution Thus, the lens of history is a great way to consider knowledge and understanding of society and technology from a different angle in terms of comprehending the dynamics of society and the importance of technology […]
• Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare In addition, the improved AI tools will assist in choosing the best method of treatment and predict the likely results of specific solutions.
• The Need to Improve One’s Self-Awareness Personal improvement is needed in this area because of the frequent loss of confidence and self-esteem in the process of acting on my emotions.
• The Effectiveness of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture Thus, the research question of the proposed study is as follows: how effective is the application of artificial intelligence to agriculture in terms of removing inefficiency and the lack of productivity?
• What Is Business Intelligence? The process allows managers, executives, and other business leaders to generate effective and accurate company choices or decisions faster or quicker to deliver better outcomes in the required time.
• Aspects of Psychology: Theories of Intelligence An important constituent of this theory is that of the ‘g’s theory or the general theory of intelligence. This theory is suggestive of the fact that intelligence is not based on one or two elements, […]
• Application of Artificial Intelligence in Business The connection of AI and the business strategy of an organization is displayed through the ability to use its algorithm for achieving competitive advantage and maintaining it.
• Pakistan’s Inter-Service Intelligence The institution was formed to solve the problem of the intelligence failure in the collection of information and because of lack of coordination among the Pakistani forces.
• Emotional Intelligence Assessment This is attributable to the fact that they are aware of our weaknesses and are in a better position to correct us accordingly.
• Defining and Measuring of Human Intelligence Well-known tests of intelligence are the Wechsler scales (for adults and children), the Stanford–Binet test and the British Intelligence Scale.
• Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence The first limitation is the speed of information transfer, which, thanks to the advances in information technology, is becoming faster and faster. Advances in information technology and the AI would have to remove the biological […]
• Central Intelligence Agency’s Structural Analysis The formalization of the CIA is also at a high level, as due to security protocols and other regulations, actions of employees and their responsibilities are regulated by policies and formal rules.
• The Eight Forms of Intelligence The focus of this research paper is to examine the eight forms of intelligence as proposed by Howard Gardner in his theory to see if they are existent within the domains of human existence.
• Oversight of Local Counterterrorism and Security Intelligence The proposed method of mitigating the consequences of terrorism and the legal aspects of the issue is appropriate and intended for the chosen niche of national security.
• Thurstone’s Multi-Factor Analysis of Intelligence It is not easy to calculate the multiple factors from a set of observations on a group of people. Thurstone suggests that the evolution of human intelligence occurs in seven-dimensional liberty.
• Evie.ai: Artificial Intelligence and Future Work In addition, some definitions and examples of AI for business are given together with discussing the development of tech companies around the globe. Therefore, the global demand for AI is expected to continue increasing in […]
• Artificial Intelligence and Related Social Threats It may be expressed in a variety of ways, from peaceful attempts to attract attention to the issue to violent and criminal activities.
• Measuring Intelligence: IQ Scale Range Breakdown The median of this group is close to that of a normal distribution because, from the information given and graphs provided, people had their scores as 100.
• Emotional Intelligence and Its Impact on Success As for me, I would define emotional intelligence as the ability to react to the situation in a proper way, to find the appropriate way out of a situation, and to make a decision successful […]
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV The majority of administration and scoring errors emerge due to the lack of expertise and experience in the test conductors. The administration errors may include the lack of clarification in case of the ambiguous answers […]
• The Concept of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Analysis Organisational behaviour and the behaviour of individuals can be understood through the adoption and practice of emotional intelligence in organisations. Emotional intelligence has to resonate from the management of organisation and entail the training of […]
• The Effect of Students Emotional Intelligence on Academic Performance The findings of the study will be used to assist students to see the importance of controlling their emotions and teachers to realize the need of integrating the components of EI into the curriculum and […]
• Emotional Intelligence in the Organizational Behavior Context Low EI might cause the leader to be insensitive to the mood of the followers and this will lead to frustration and lower the output of the team.
• Decision Support System, Business Intelligence and Examples of Analytics It serves to gather and analyze large amounts of data to expand the capabilities but not to replace the course of the initial decision.
• How Artificial Intelligence Affects the Stock Market End-to-end machine learning under the umbrella of AI has given a chance to have quality and quantity data science that can be used in analysis during stock trading.
• Artificial Intelligence Impact on Work and Society One of the biggest aspects that significantly affected my understanding of the issue of utilizing artificial intelligence for a variety of tasks is the increasingly important role of human interventions.
• Human Intelligence as the Best Sources of Information Human intelligence is one of the best sources of information. However, it is important to question why some of the open sources are considered to be less useful.
• Artificial Intelligence and Humans Co-Existence Some strategies to address these challenges exist; however, the strict maintenance of key areas under human control is the only valid solution to ensure people’s safety.
• Grade Point Average and Intelligence Indicators However, based on the expositions tabled in this paper, it suffices to conclude that GPA is not a reliable measure of intelligence.
• Business Intelligence and Decision Making As can be deduced from the preceding discussion, both the IBM and SAS Business Intelligence solutions have a variety of benefits to offer to business enterprises.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Clinical Trials At the same time, to draw contrasts on the application of AI and ML in the health sector, the limitations of the technologies will also be elucidated to highlight areas of improvement that could be […]
• Emotional Intelligence Coaching Emotional Intelligence Coaching does not focus of giving a person advice about the issues in their private life.
• Artificial Intelligence in Smart Farming Owing to the development of the smart farming concept and precision agriculture, farmers all over the world gained a chance to implement digital tech to their daily operations and utilize AI to support some of […]
• Leadership and Emotional Intelligence Empathy is ability of a person to feel for another individual, to put oneself emotionally in the shoes of others and relate with their feeling. To be successful in leadership, it is important for a […]
• Artificial Intelligence Threat to Human Activities Despite the fictional and speculative nature of the majority of implications connected to the supposed threat that the artificial intelligence poses to mankind and the resulting low credibility ascribed to all such suggestions, at least […]
• Artificial Intelligence and the Associated Threats Artificial Intelligence, commonly referred to as AI refers to a branch of computer science that deals with the establishment of computer software and programs aimed at the change of the way many people carry out […]
• Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence This is based on the fact that emotional intelligence mostly comes from our environment and how we master the nature of occurrences in it.
• How Emotional Intelligence Influences Leadership In order to be an effective leader, a broad understanding of emotions and their impacts on others is imperative for leaders.
• Concept of Emotional Intelligence: Arguments Emotional intelligence is the “subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and […]
• Moral Intelligence Development In the course of his day-to-day banking activities, I realized that the general manager used to work in line with the banking rules and regulations to the letter.
• Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace Emotional intelligence is a significant requirement for team work; there is a coherent link between successes attained in team work to the level of emotional intelligence held by the members of the team.
• Artificial Intelligence in Dental Hygiene Dental hygiene consists of treating the oral cavity and ridding the patient of current and potential diseases. In addition, AI will eliminate the need to work with this data and allow more attention to the […]
• The “Emotional Intelligence” Book by Goleman In his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Daniel Goleman explains this concept and the value of this feature.
• Robotics and Artificial Intelligence in Organizations Otherwise, cognitively complex tasks and those demanding emotional intelligence will be performed by humans, with the support of robotics and AI. Therefore, this study speaks of the importance of employee trust in AI and organization.
• Homeland Security. The Ethics of Intelligence Collection The Principles of Professional Ethics for the Intelligence Community is a collection of rules that assists people working in the intelligence sphere to guide their ethics.
• Intelligence Theories Critique The downside of this approach is that it is hard to define where the natural predispositions end and the acquired skills begin.
• What Progress Has Been Made With Artificial Intelligence? According to Dunjko and Briegel, AI contains a variety of fields and concepts, including the necessity to understand human capacities, abstract all the aspects of work, and realize similar aptitudes in machines.
• How Memory and Intelligence Change as We Age The central argument of the paper is that intelligence and memory change considerably across the lifespan, but these alterations are different in the two concepts. The article by Ofen and Shing is a valuable contribution […]
• Grades at Student’s Intelligence and Performance Department of Education should not use grades to define student’s intelligence and performance because grading system depends on the judgment of a professional teacher, but not the learners, the performance of a student relies on […]
• The Intelligence of Human and Non-Human Animals After assessing the evidence, it is argued that if the language is understood as a structured system of signs that is used conventionally in order to communicate meaning, then it is possible to state that […]
• Psychological Testing Tools: Intelligence Tests As a result of such misses, there is a need for governments, schools, and businesses to emphasize more on the skills of rational thinking that have not been addressed by the intelligence tests. This is […]
• Leveraging the Five Intelligence Disciplines to Access the Threat and Urgency of Iran’s Nuclear Program Further, even with the outburst of practical aptitude in the nation, HUMINT intelligence is still in the lead in the provision of technical information that is not accessible to most technical collectors.
• Cognitive Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Organisational Behavior The distinction between emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence is evidenced in the psychometric tests of assessing cognitive ability and psychometric tests of intelligence.
• Psychology Aspects in Spearman’s, Stenberg’s and Gardner’s Models of Intelligence On the other hand, Gardner unlike Spearman illustrates that it is not accurate to measure intelligence numerically because according to him, it is composed of skills and abilities that are greatly valued in different cultures.
• Motional Intelligence Skills in the New Working Life The process of compiling the content of the article was carried out through the technique of thoughtful reading, highlighting the most important parts of the text, and reflecting during the process of reading. Critical reading, […]
• Emotional Intelligence among University Hospital Nurses Even though it is challenging to overestimate the importance of self-management and its competencies, University Hospital nurses state that this domain brings a few inefficiencies in the medical organization.
• Emotional Intelligence: Self-Awareness Importance Leaders with high self-awareness are more likely to understand their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as their impact on others, which helps them make better decisions, manage stress and conflict effectively, and lead with […]
• Kinds of Big Data: Foundations of Business Intelligence IBM and the British Library collaborated to build a big data system. The Library collects large volumes of unorganized Web data to make them extracted, annotated, and graphically analyzed with the aid of IBM BigSheets.
• The Theory of Multiple Intelligence by H. Gardner Understanding the MI for adolescents is essential in teaching because it helps teachers understand the kind of students they have in terms of abilities, innovativeness, and talent.
• Therapeutic Dogs, Dementia, Alzheimer’s and Fluid Intelligence It is worth noting that with dementia, the patient has a speech disorder and a personality change in the early stages of the pathology.
• Validity of Multiple Intelligence Testing Therefore, it is critical to re-check and compare people’s scores to other tests to obtain an objective view of a person’s prevailing intelligence types.
• Emotional Intelligence: Bluevine Case Analysis These are crucial for the leadership, the staff, and the company as a whole as it strives to enhance its productivity.
• Fostering Effective Communication and Emotional Intelligence in Conflict Resolution The capacity to recognize, comprehend, and react to the sentiments of others is just as important as the capacity to articulate and control one’s own emotions.
• Approaching Disaster Security: Book Review The book emphasizes the importance of predicting, creating scenarios, and thinking about the ways to solve them. I would suggest this book to risk assessment experts and average readers interested in how the human mind […]
• Measuring Emotional Intelligence in Job Selection As a result, managers must be aware of the peculiarities of different generations in the company, as demonstrated by Margie to Rebecca, and behave appropriately.
• Change Leadership and Emotional Intelligence By providing essential information about the arrangement of the theater production, as well as coordinating numerous communication processes within it and leading a diverse team of experts, “Theater 1310” has expanded the range of my […]
• The Machine Intelligence Research Institute Striving to the alignment of AI with human interests is one of the strategic priorities and the third strength of the Institute.
• Working With Artificial Intelligence (AI) The subject of this article is working with artificial intelligence and claims that AI can be a valuable tool to help people improve their productivity.
• Areas of Emotional Intelligence Self-awareness is the initial step that forms emotional intelligence and allows other areas of the concept to participate in the process.
• Personality, Intelligence, and Creativity The general notion is that the average levels of the attributes linked to positive adaptation and successful adult roles fulfillment increase in adulthood.
• Intelligence Failure Leading Up to Pearl Harbor Answering the research question requires providing an overview of different types of intelligence information that had been provided to the decision-makers in the American government leading up to the attack.
• Smart Cities Optimization With Artificial Intelligence It would clone itself and use every possible path to gauge the best supplier of these materials and make a purchase through their system.
• Types of Intelligence Collection The Central Intelligence Agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and the United States Marine Corps are among such members. The division is in charge of service employees for geographic information systems intelligence, signals and […]
• The Artificial Intelligence Use in Solar Panels The use of solar PV panels as sources of renewable energy has been gaining traction in the recent decades. This implies that the output of energy in PV solar panels is often unstable.
• Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Management Viewpoints on emotional intelligence as a trait and an ability have some conceptual differences, but both perspectives suppose that it is an essential element of business decision-making, as illustrated by the successful career of Warren […]
• Retail and Automotive Industries: The Use of Artificial Intelligence Discovery analytics utilization involves the creation, adoption, and implementation of new and advanced technologies that use artificial intelligence systems to address existing shortcomings in the provision of superior customer experience.
• Ethical Issues in the Artificial Intelligence Field This study will analyze ethical bias and accountability issues arising from freedom of expression, copyright, and right to privacy and use the ethical frameworks of utilitarianism and deontology to propose a policy for addressing the […]
• Predictive Policing: Intelligence-Led Policing for Law Enforcement Managers It is important to note that policing is a complex and multifaceted set of measures designed to enforce the law and safeguard people.
• The Influence of Personality and Intelligence on Political Attitudes In this sense, political attitudes are influenced by intrinsic factors, such as the level of intelligence and personality traits, implying that the stance of a more intelligent individual with specific characteristics from the Big Five […]
• Nature vs. Nurture: Determining People’s Intelligence In this piece, I will reflect on my relevant experience, elaborate on my types of intelligence by Gardner and Sternberg and contribute to the debate on environment vs.genes.
• Artificial Intelligence: Positive and Negative Sides In general, few people understand how it works and what to expect from it due to the novelty of the concept of AI. In that case, the work on creating and providing AI is related […]
• The Concept of Intelligence Gardner tries to explain and define intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligence. Gardner’s definition of intelligence changed my outlook on my abilities and that of other people.
• Technology of Intelligence Collection of the 21st Century As a result, the field of intelligence faces a key challenge that consist of the need to balance the threats and benefits of technology for data collection.
• Optimizing Factory Efficiency via Artificial Intelligence They allow enterprises to control the entire production cycle, and the close integration of production and computing systems ensures the flexibility of technological processes and the ability to change the types of products.
• Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Development I found the examples given very convincing and the logic behind the arguments solid and straightforward to follow. At the same time, I disagree that overvaluing one’s skills is connected to experience.
• How Can Artificial Intelligence Improve Clinical Pathology Testing? Recent technological advancements open the possibility of solving this problem by shifting the responsibility from the human mind to the computational power of machines. AI-based image analysis and machine learning have the potential to improve […]
• Artificial Intelligence: Supply Chain Application and Perspectives The analysis is aimed to measure the current impact of artificial intelligence presence in supply chain processes and ponder the perspectives of AI development in terms of the leading power of supply chain regulation.
• Intelligence Among Students: Impact on the Academic Performance Thus, intelligence has additional values represented by social and operational skills, especially when it comes to evaluating students; they are described in the New York Times article and in the theories of the above-mentioned scholars.
• The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Resolving Staffing Issues The company doubtlessly should reframe its recruiting as well as retention system, which determines the need for investigating on the innovative approaches in the industry to choose and adopt the most suitable.
• Algorithmic Media Using Artificial Intelligence This means that social media can control which information is to be seen by users in their feeds first as related to the higher likelihood that they want to see it.
• Wagner et al.’s “Cyber Threat Intelligence Sharing” As such, Wagner et al, in the article “Cyber threat intelligence sharing: Survey and research directions”, investigate and address several issue points of focus on the broader subject of sharing cyber threat intelligence.
• Artificial Intelligence and Copyright Laws The United States Copyright Office has refused to give rights to a person whose camera has been used by a monkey to take a selfie, after which the country’s copyright practices compendium has been expanded […]
• Internet Impact on Children’s Intelligence and Socialization Ninety percent of children today already have an online history once they reach the age of two, and most use the internet regularly by the age of seven or eight.
• Leading With Cultural Intelligence by D. Livermore It is essential not only not to be afraid of cross-cultural encounters but to seek them and expand one’s worldview. The goal of cross-cultural interactions does not lie in understanding how a person must change […]
• Theories About Intelligence and Academic Achievement In contrast to Wechsler’s approach, Gardner expands the idea of intelligence and suggests that it is not limited by acquiring information.
• Cultural Intelligence and Multicultural Management This means that I have high levels of cultural intelligence and am able to effectively understand and interact with people from other cultures.
• The Artificial Intelligence Application in America The application of artificial intelligence in America had vast impacts on the lives of the American citizens in the enhancement of the governance citizen interactions.A.
• “Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare” and “From Spreading to Embedding Innovation” That is, the narration in the article is free of ill-founded value judgments, and the language corresponds to the article’s subject matter, which is artificial intelligence in healthcare.
• Master of Artificial Intelligence At a certain point in the process of inventing and introducing various technological devices intended for the means of mastering and subjugating the surrounding space, for means of communication and calculating his actions, a person […]
• Artificial Intelligence in Business Management All these developments are implemented in each of the branches of the company’s operation, increasing the speed of performance and the effectiveness of actions that are more beneficial.
• Artificial Intelligence and Building Information Modeling Software Tools The second article is by Zhang et al.and it analyzes the interoperability of BIM software tools and addresses the problems in the process of data exchange.
• Artificial Intelligence: Spell and Graphcore Partnership AI and ML appear as the next step in advanced technologies that will infiltrate every field of activity with the purpose of facilitation and improvement.
• Artificial Intelligence in Marketing Artificial intelligence in marketing is a method of using customer data and AI concepts, including machine learning, to predict the next step of the consumer and meet his needs, even those that the consumer has […]
• Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Life The author of The Algorithms for Love, Liu Ken, writes that humans are too young and too immature to understand the global laws of the universe.
• Intelligence and Its Assessment Aspects This test is known for its practicality, accessibility, and the fact that it generates a result that shows a global measure of intelligence rather than a set of different performance-based characteristics.
• Implementation of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare Settings The drivers for the innovation are the increase in the aging population, the National Health Service’s strategies to enhance the well-being of citizens and healthcare services’ quality, and the expansion of modern technologies in other […]
• Artificial Intelligence: The Ethical Theory The ethical theory for individuals uses the ethical theory for purposes of decision making and emphasizes the aspects of an ethical dilemma.
• Artificial Intelligence in Business One of the main concerns with the adoption of AI is bias. AI technology is bound to malfunction, and that would be detrimental for the businesses deploying it.
• Daniel Goleman Introduces Emotional Intelligence Self-awareness is important in order for a person to be knowledgeable about his or her inner feelings and emotions by being aware of their presence and impact on the individual psyche.
• Cultural Intelligence: Can Global Sport Outreach Efforts Harm? Church sport outreach programs should also consider these as special needs in the society and ensure that the traditions are followed to avoid unintentional harm.
• Artificial Intelligence and Neural Networks in Art Is Good Historically, the development of a new tool in art led to increased artistic activity, the creation of new genres, and the exploration of new possibilities.
• Data, Information, and Intelligence in Cloud Computing Cloud computing is able to process large amounts of data which can improve the utilization of later formed information and intelligence.
• “Artificial Intelligence and Its Role in Near Future” The author’s work is devoted to the role of artificial intelligence in human life: He writes about the development of AI, especially noting how computer technology has caused a renaissance of influence on processing data […]
• Different Cultural Views of Concepts of “Common Knowledge” and “Intelligence” While the wallabies, kangaroos, and emu are just regular exemplars of Australian fauna, the point of this question being stated in a common knowledge test proves that the cultural impact in such tests is unfathomable. […]
• Artificial Intelligence Effect on Information Technology Industry By highlighting common high-risk ethical decisions through a modified version of the trolley dilemma in a military scenario, the article demonstrates the importance of ethical concerns in the design and training of AI.
• Artificial Intelligence in Social Networks for Retail The use of social medial for retail is one of the most mature sectors of the economy in terms of the use of AI.
• Artificial Intelligence Investments in the UAE One of the components of the strategy is to support the heritage of the country’s founding fathers, which means the UAE has to remain among the most advanced nations.
• Aspects of Artificial Intelligence in Nursing Homes A nursing home offers quality care for the old people who are outside the hospital by allowing them to be taken care of in the homes for the elderly.
• Use of Artificial Intelligence Techniques in the Implementation of Audit Tasks The availability of relevant and credible data is one of the basic demands for the stable functioning of the technology and the absence of critical mistakes.
• Why Emotional Intelligence (EI) Training Will Help Your Organization to Prosper Emotional Intelligence comes from two words. Emotions refer to personal feelings arising from the state of the mind of a person.
• Business Intelligence Project: Using Predictive Analytics to Improve a Business Overall, the study aims to investigate the impact of predictive analytics by assessing inventory, sales, and customer data of a small business.
• Using Artificial Intelligence to Detect Psyllids in Citrus However, the dangerous psyllids have been a threat that discourages farmers from investing in the fruit due to the impact the disease has on the plant both in the short-term and in the long-term.
• Artificial Intelligence in Drone Technology for Farming Automated drones fitted with spraying features are used in the monitoring of agricultural processes and crops to schedule tasks and expeditiously address the observed issues throughout plant life.
• CGR Company: Business Intelligence Business intelligence is a notion that is used by the software vendors and IT consultants to describe the infrastructure for warehousing.
• Artificial Intelligence in “I, Robot” by Alex Proyas To begin with, AI is defined by Nilsson as a field of computer science that attempts to enhance the level of intelligence of computer systems.
• Dangers of Logic and Artificial Intelligence
• Big Data and Artificial Intelligence
• Cultural Intelligence Staff Developing
• The Intelligence Community and Law Enforcement
• Intelligence Issues in Human Trafficking
• Intelligence Issues in Border Security, Human Trafficking, and Narcotics Trafficking
• The Use of Intelligence Collection Systems
• Counterterrorism and Intelligence
• Business Intelligence Systems: Coronavirus Disease
• DHS and Intelligence: Terrorism
• Clinical Experience: Emotional Intelligence
• Search for Intelligence: Acquisition of Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence: Research and Rationale
• Artificial Intelligence Applications in the Healthcare System
• Nurses’ Emotional Intelligence and Patient Satisfaction
• Emotional Intelligence and Conflict-Handling Styles in Nurses
• Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Study by Winship
• Hypothesis Testing: Child’s Intelligence Is Not Affected if Their Mothers Have German Measles
• Emotional Intelligence and Effective Leadership in the Healthcare Environment
• Stress, Emotional Intelligence, and Job Performance Correlation in Nursing
• Emotional Intelligence’s Support for Teamwork and Teambuilding in Nursing
• Fundamental Flaws In Intelligence Analysis
• Utility of Intelligence-Led Policing
• Will the Development of Artificial Intelligence Endanger Global Human Rights?
• Biotechnology & Artificial Intelligence vs. Humanism
• COVID-19 and Artificial Intelligence: Protecting Healthcare Workers and Curbing the Spread
• Emotional Intelligence and Ethical Climates in Places of Work
• Artificial Intelligence in Finland
• South China’s Intelligence Augmentation
• Infusing AI Technologies Into the Intelligence Analysis Process
• Robots in Today’s Society: Artificial Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence and Social Life
• Memory, Thinking, and Human Intelligence
• Popular Measures of Intelligence
• Intelligence Testing Articles Analysis
• Intelligence Is More From the Ability Than the Opportunity
• Learning and Intelligence Theories
• Psychology: Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence
• Psychology: Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
• Intelligence Heritability and Modifiability
• Emotional Intelligence: Term Definition
• Hominoid Evolution: Intelligence and Communication
• The Concept of the United States Intelligence
• New Artificial Technology in Healthcare: Artificial Intelligence and Smart Devices
• Cognitive Psychology: Intelligence and Wisdom
• Emotional and Traditional Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence Quotient
• Artificial Intelligence and Ethical Issues at Workplace
• Artificial Intelligence Technology for Nursing
• The Utility of the Intelligence Cycle to Modern Intelligence Organization
• Emotional Intelligence and Solution Formation
• Reflection on Learning: Intelligence Pathologies
• Cryptocurrency Exchange Market Prediction and Analysis Using Data Mining and Artificial Intelligence
• Expansion of the American-Indian’s Intelligence Partnership
• The Effect of Memory, Intelligence and Personality on Employee Performance and Behaviour
• Is Artificial Intelligence a Threat for Nursing?
• Artificial Intelligence and Work of the Future
• Evie.ai: Artificial Intelligence and Future Workforce
• Evie.ai Company in Artificial Intelligence Market
• Is Artificial Intelligence a Threat to Nursing?
• Artificial Intelligence and People-Focused Cities
• Emotional Intelligence for Human Resource Management
• Personal Emotional Intelligence Analysis
• Intelligence and Creativity: Steve Jobs’s Example
• Pakistan’s Intelligence System After the 1950s
• The Intelligence Community’s Budget Issues
• Emotional Intelligence Training and Organizational Prosperity
• Betabrand Company’s Collective Intelligence Genome
• Market Study and Market Intelligence for Saudi Aramco
• Effective Use of Intelligence in Homeland Security
• Business Intelligence Strategy: Online Music Store
• Inspiring Leadership and Emotional Intelligence
• Turing Test: Real and Artificial Intelligence
• Intelligence and Communication in Business Settings
• Strategic Intelligence Community
• US-India Intelligence Community Sharing and Partnership
• Personality Development, Cognition and Intelligence
• The Psychology of Thinking and Intelligence
• Saudi Arabian Companies: Business Intelligence System
• Saudi Arabia Information Technology: Artificial Intelligence
• Google Analytics as a Business Intelligence Tool
• Artificial Intelligence System for Smart Energy Consumption
• Business Intelligence in Healthcare
• Artificial Intelligence Reducing Costs in Hospitality Industry
• Artificial Intelligence for Diabetes: Project Experiences
• “Intelligence, Race, and Genetics” by Sternberg et al.
• Emotional Intelligence in Midwives’ Communication
• Strengths and Emotional Intelligence in Management
• Business Intelligence Strategy and Framework
• Radiography Stereotypes and Emotional Intelligence
• Adolescent Intelligence and Developmental Factors
• The German Intelligence System Analysis
• “Spy Novels” and Intelligence Studies
• Emotional Intelligence and Effective Leadership
• Artificial Intelligence Company’s Economic Indicators
• The Cold War: Did Intelligence Make Any Difference?
• Embedded Intelligence: Evolution and Future
• Artificial Intelligence and Future of Sales
• Apple’s Company Announcement on Artificial Intelligence
• Competitive Intelligence Process and Analytic Tools
• Experiential Hospitality and Emotional Intelligence
• Cultural Differences and Human Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence in Working Environment
• Boston Marathon Bombing and Intelligence Failure
• Intelligence Quotient vs. Expertise in Education
• Pakistani and American Intelligence Agencies
• Intelligence Problem in the Trump Administration
• Emotional Intelligence and Leadership in the UAE
• Drug Trafficking, National Security and Intelligence
• Terror Attacks and Intelligence Community in the US
• Emotional Intelligence Strong and Weak Competencies
• Perception of Intelligence in Different Cultures
• Scoville’s Role in Office of Scientific Intelligence
• National Security & Central Intelligence Agencies
• The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978
• Business Intelligence: Create, Implement, Use
• Intelligence in What Makes a Leader? by D. Goleman
• Social and Emotional Intelligence in Education
• Drug Traffickers Arrest: Intelligence Cycle
• US Intelligence to Prevent Terrorist Attacks
• Business Intelligence and Analytics
• Emotional Intelligence in Social Workers
• Emotional Intelligence’ Elements at the Workplace
• The Use of Competitive Intelligence in Business
• Countering Terrorism: The US Intelligence Community
• Pearl Harbor and 9/11: Intelligence Failure
• Cultural Intelligence by Christopher and Elaine Mosakowski
• Relevance of Emotional Intelligence in Modern Organisations
• IQ Reliability in Measuring Human Intelligence
• Decision Support System and Business Intelligence
• Intelligence Testing: Theories and Effectiveness
• Creative Intelligence and Leadership
• Business Intelligence Systems and Data Organization
• The UAE Traffic Department’s Business Intelligence
• Leadership and Emotional Intelligence Concept
• Cardwell Marketing Intelligence: Data Quality Importance
• David Wechsler Intelligence Test
• Emotional Intelligence – Psychology
• Individual Computerized Intelligence Tests
• Intelligence Definition and Measurement Aspects
• Multiple Intelligence Theory
• Does Intelligence Predict Happiness?
• Artificial Intelligence in the Documentary “Transcendent Man”
• Intelligence Technologies: Helpful Innovations or Threats
• Emotional Intelligence as a Factor of Professional Success
• E-Commerce: Mining Data for Better Business Intelligence
• Cultural Intelligence by Earley, P. Christopher and Elaine Mosakowski
• Theory Integration in Intelligence
• Theoretical Framework in Intelligence Studies
• History of the Intelligence Community
• Data Collection in Intelligence
• Challenges of Neglecting Strategic Intelligence
• The Impacts of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 on the National Intelligence Community
• Intelligence and Leadership in “Why Smart People Can Be So Stupid” by Ray Hyman
• Creativity and Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence, Burnout, and Job Insecurity
• Emotional Intelligence’s Impact in the Workplace
• Emotional Intelligence in Groups
• Intelligence–Led Policing
• Human and Technical Intelligence in Countering Terrorism
• The Neglect of Strategic Intelligence
• National Intelligence Community
• U.S. Intelligence Capabilities
• The Intelligence Community Oversight
• Perception of Intelligence by Zullu and Kpelle
• US Intelligence Community
• Future Challenges Within the Intelligence Community
• Neglecting Strategic Intelligence
• Public and Private Partnerships in Intelligence
• Intelligence Reforms in the USA
• Open Source Intelligence of Iran’s Nuclear Program
• Intelligent Quotient Test Concept and Reliability
• Articles on Intelligence Research
• The Role of Oversight in Strategic Intelligence
• CIA. Operations and Intelligence: A Potential for Conflict?
• Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence in Different Areas
• Customer Management and Customer Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence in Teamwork and Mutual Cooperation
• Intelligence Definition and Measurement
• Technology Should Be Used To Enhance Not Replace Human Intelligence
• Primal Leadership: Flexible Skills and Intelligence
• Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis
• Emotional Intelligence and Servant Leadership
• Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership
• Fundamental Obstacles to Effectiveness Within the Intelligence Community
• Achievement and Intelligence
• Assessments of Intelligence and Achievement Tests
• The Multiple Intelligence Theory in Differentiated Classroom
• Evaluation of Ideal Definitions and the Basis of Intelligence Testing
• U.S. Intelligence Recurring Themes
• The Importance of Business Intelligence
• Cultivating Emotional Intelligence in the Work Place
• The Role of Domestic Intelligence Agency in USA
• Intelligence Collection Types
• Intelligence Operations in Afghanistan, 2001-to Present
• Desert Storm Intelligence Operation
• Cloud Business Intelligence in SMEs
• Intelligence Agency Operation Improvement
• Technology to Address Challenges for Intelligence Agencies
• The Development of Emotional Intelligence and Its Application
• Designing and Evaluating Competitive Intelligence Capacity
• Intelligence and Race Correlation
• Intelligence in Two Psychological Journals Written by Thorndike and Hagopian
• Current and Emerging Technology in Data Warehousing and Business Intelligence
• The Use of Torture as an Ethical Collection Method of Intelligence
• Intelligence Theories and Testing
• Business Intelligence Solutions in UAE Companies
• The Intelligence Failures of Operation Barbarossa
• Artificial Intelligence: Pros and Cons
• The Methods of Measuring Intelligence and Its Theories
• Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance Correlation
• Business Intelligence and Data Warehousing System
• Emotional Intelligence Impact on Organization’s Performance
• The Concept of Emotional Intelligence and Its Models
• Improvement of Visual Intelligence in Psychology
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
• Non Experts: Artificial Intelligence
• Evaluating Daniel Tammet’s Intelligence
• Artificial Intelligence in Post Modern Development
• Intelligence and God Existence
• Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence
• Various Concepts Used in Decision-Making in Business
• The Theories of Person Intelligence
• The Role of Human Intelligence in the Country Security
• Intelligence Reform and Terrorist Prevention Act
• The Concept of Emotional Intelligence
• Business Intelligence Approaches
• Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
• Mental Process: Creative Intelligence Styles
• Neuropsychological Assessment: Individually Administered Intelligence Tests
• Academic Achievements Research Topics
• Computer Forensics Essay Topics
• Brain-Based Learning Essay Titles
• Cognitive Psychology Topics
• Emotional Intelligence Paper Topics
• Data Mining Titles
• Individualism Topics
• Innovation Titles
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Intelligence — An Importance Of Intelligence In Modern World

An Importance of Intelligence in Modern World

• Categories: Intelligence

About this sample

Words: 506 |

Published: Jun 5, 2019

Words: 506 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Works Cited:

• Chrisman, J. J., Chua, J. H., & Sharma, P. (2021). Family Business Studies: An Annotated Bibliography. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 12(3), 100468.
• Gartner, W. B., Shaver, K. G., Carter, N. M., & Reynolds, P. D. (2004). Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: The process of business creation. Sage Publications.
• Gupta, V. K., Goktan, A. B., & Gunay, G. (2014). Succession planning in family businesses: Evidence from Turkey. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 5(2), 154-168.
• Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values (Vol. 5). Sage.
• Li, J. T., Poppo, L., & Zhou, K. Z. (2008). Do managerial ties in China always produce value? Competition, uncertainty, and domestic vs. foreign firms. Strategic management journal, 29(5), 383-400.
• Nee, V. (1992). Organizational dynamics of market transition: Hybrid forms, property rights, and mixed economy in China. Administrative science quarterly, 1-27.
• Peng, M. W., Sun, S. L., Pinkham, B., & Chen, H. (2009). The institution-based view as a third leg for a strategy tripod. Academy of Management perspectives, 23(3), 63-81.
• Reynolds, P. D., Bosma, N., Autio, E., Hunt, S., De Bono, N., & Servais, I. (2005). Global entrepreneurship monitor: Data collection design and implementation 1998–2003. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 205-231.
• Scott, W. R. (2014). Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests, and identities. Sage publications.
• Sarasvathy, S. D. (2001). Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency. Academy of management review, 26(2), 243-263.

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Artificial Intelligence Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on artificial intelligence.

Artificial Intelligence refers to the intelligence of machines. This is in contrast to the natural intelligence of humans and animals. With Artificial Intelligence, machines perform functions such as learning, planning, reasoning and problem-solving. Most noteworthy, Artificial Intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence by machines. It is probably the fastest-growing development in the World of technology and innovation . Furthermore, many experts believe AI could solve major challenges and crisis situations.

Types of Artificial Intelligence

First of all, the categorization of Artificial Intelligence is into four types. Arend Hintze came up with this categorization. The categories are as follows:

Type 1: Reactive machines – These machines can react to situations. A famous example can be Deep Blue, the IBM chess program. Most noteworthy, the chess program won against Garry Kasparov , the popular chess legend. Furthermore, such machines lack memory. These machines certainly cannot use past experiences to inform future ones. It analyses all possible alternatives and chooses the best one.

Type 2: Limited memory – These AI systems are capable of using past experiences to inform future ones. A good example can be self-driving cars. Such cars have decision making systems . The car makes actions like changing lanes. Most noteworthy, these actions come from observations. There is no permanent storage of these observations.

Type 3: Theory of mind – This refers to understand others. Above all, this means to understand that others have their beliefs, intentions, desires, and opinions. However, this type of AI does not exist yet.

Type 4: Self-awareness – This is the highest and most sophisticated level of Artificial Intelligence. Such systems have a sense of self. Furthermore, they have awareness, consciousness, and emotions. Obviously, such type of technology does not yet exist. This technology would certainly be a revolution .

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Applications of Artificial Intelligence

First of all, AI has significant use in healthcare. Companies are trying to develop technologies for quick diagnosis. Artificial Intelligence would efficiently operate on patients without human supervision. Such technological surgeries are already taking place. Another excellent healthcare technology is IBM Watson.

Artificial Intelligence in business would significantly save time and effort. There is an application of robotic automation to human business tasks. Furthermore, Machine learning algorithms help in better serving customers. Chatbots provide immediate response and service to customers.

AI can greatly increase the rate of work in manufacturing. Manufacture of a huge number of products can take place with AI. Furthermore, the entire production process can take place without human intervention. Hence, a lot of time and effort is saved.

Artificial Intelligence has applications in various other fields. These fields can be military , law , video games , government, finance, automotive, audit, art, etc. Hence, it’s clear that AI has a massive amount of different applications.

To sum it up, Artificial Intelligence looks all set to be the future of the World. Experts believe AI would certainly become a part and parcel of human life soon. AI would completely change the way we view our World. With Artificial Intelligence, the future seems intriguing and exciting.

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Guest Essay

A.I. Is Changing War. We Are Not Ready.

By Raj M. Shah and Christopher Kirchhoff

Mr. Shah is the managing partner of Shield Capital. Mr. Kirchhoff helped build the Pentagon’s Defense Innovation Unit.

The First Matabele War, fought between 1893 and 1894, foretold the future.

In its opening battle, roughly 700 soldiers, paramilitaries and African auxiliaries aligned with the British South Africa Company used five Maxim guns — the world’s first fully automatic weapon — to help repel over 5,000 Ndebele warriors, some 1,500 of whom were killed at a cost of only a handful of British soldiers. The brutal era of trench warfare the Maxim gun ushered in only became fully apparent in World War I. Yet initial accounts of its singular effectiveness correctly foretold the end of the cavalry, a critical piece of combat arms since the Iron Age.

We stand at the precipice of an even more consequential revolution in military affairs today. A new wave of war is bearing down on us. Artificial-intelligence-powered autonomous weapons systems are going global. And the U.S. military is not ready for it.

Weeks ago, the world experienced another Maxim gun moment: The Ukrainian military evacuated U.S.-provided M1A1 Abrams battle tanks from the front lines after many of them were reportedly destroyed by Russian kamikaze drones . The withdrawal of one of the world’s most advanced battle tanks in an A.I.-powered drone war foretells the end of a century of manned mechanized warfare as we know it. Like other unmanned vehicles that aim for a high level of autonomy, these Russian drones don’t rely on large language models or similar A.I. more familiar to civilian consumers, but rather on technology like machine learning to help identify, seek and destroy targets. Even those devices that are not entirely A.I.-driven increasingly use A.I. and adjacent technologies for targeting, sensing and guidance.

Techno-skeptics who argue against the use of A.I. in warfare are oblivious to the reality that autonomous systems are already everywhere — and the technology is increasingly being deployed to these systems’ benefit. Hezbollah’s alleged use of explosive-laden drones has displaced at least 60,000 Israelis south of the Lebanon border. Houthi rebels are using remotely controlled sea drones to threaten the 12 percent of global shipping value that passes through the Red Sea, including the supertanker Sounion , now abandoned, adrift and aflame, with four times as much oil as was carried by the Exxon Valdez. And in the attacks of Oct. 7, Hamas used quadcopter drones — which probably used some A.I. capabilities — to disable Israeli surveillance towers along the Gaza border wall, allowing at least 1,500 fighters to pour over a modern-day Maginot line and murder over 1,000 Israelis, precipitating the worst eruption of violence in Israel and Palestinian territories since the 1973 Arab-Israeli war.

Yet as this is happening, the Pentagon still overwhelmingly spends its dollars on legacy weapons systems. It continues to rely on an outmoded and costly technical production system to buy tanks, ships and aircraft carriers that new generations of weapons — autonomous and hypersonic — can demonstrably kill.

Take for example the F-35, the apex predator of the sky. The fifth-generation stealth fighter is known as a “flying computer” for its ability to fuse sensor data with advanced weapons.

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Architecture Students Designing With AI

Professor Daniel Koehler teaches students the power of artificial intelligence

Photo Essay by Marsha Miller

With text prompts from students and photos of their architectural models, Daniel Koehler’s Advanced Design students can use AI to generate 50,000 images. Students then can evaluate intuitively where they see value among those thousands of designs.

“ Any algorithm, model, API [application programming interface] or platform is designed in particular ways, learns from a particular set of data, assumes a particular kind of workflow, and amplifies distinct assumptions on the application of computation to architecture,” writes Koehler in the syllabus for his class.

The class examines the ways these tools are designed and how they shape architects’ approach. “As architects, it’s crucial that we think critically about the assumptions that underlie these computational models and their applications to architecture,” Koehler writes, “and that we propose alternative workflows and develop inclusive value systems for building design.”

Koehler says AI can increase the degree that architecture is “a humane endeavor,” one that considers humans, the environment, the lifespan of a building, urban design, materials and sustainability. “Architects become participants in society who shape innovation to solve the problems of the future: housing, climate change, sustainability.”

Koehler believes AI will free students to increasingly use emotional intelligence, soft skills, cognitive flexibility, communication, creativity, collaboration and critical thinking in their work.

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Business Roundtable Releases Artificial Intelligence Policy Recommendations

September 12, 2024

Washington – Business Roundtable today released a series of white papers addressing some of the key issues concerning the regulation of artificial intelligence (AI). The papers address considerations around defining and addressing risk in AI, promoting American leadership in AI, and safely harnessing synthetic content's potential.

“Artificial intelligence holds tremendous potential for the U.S. economy and the people and businesses that power it,” said Adena Friedman, Chair and Chief Executive Officer of Nasdaq and Business Roundtable Technology Committee Chair . “Policymakers have a unique opportunity to reinforce American leadership in AI. Business leaders are committed to collaborating with policymakers to support a strong AI ecosystem, including designing effective and evidence-based guardrails when necessary, while empowering American innovation.”

“AI holds the potential to bolster economic growth and help to solve critical challenges. Our papers underscore the importance of collaboration among a broad range of stakeholder groups, including federal policymakers, academia, industry and civil society,” said Business Roundtable CEO Joshua Bolten . “Business Roundtable stands ready to collaborate with policymakers on transparent, commonsense guardrails that support a strong and safe AI ecosystem.”

Key Policy Recommendations

Defining and addressing ai risks.

• Policymakers should focus on high risks and potential outcomes associated with deploying AI models and systems in specific contexts, while avoiding broad classifications of risk for entire sectors, categories of AI or uses of AI. Additionally, policymakers should define “high-risk” through a collaborative, robust stakeholder process.
• Policymakers should align legislative and regulatory proposals with existing, effective domestic and international policies and industry risk management strategies to promote a harmonized approach and avoid introducing uncertainty and conflicting compliance requirements.
• Policymakers should identify clear, measurable strategies for evaluating and addressing AI risks that will equip developers and deployers with the necessary information to safely, securely and confidently use AI.

Promoting American Leadership in AI Innovation

• Policymakers should support strategic public-private partnerships working to strengthen AI innovation infrastructure, including codifying and appropriately funding the National AI Research Resource and the U.S. AI Safety Institute.
• Policymakers should expand access to technical resources, including efforts to make high-impact government datasets more widely available.
• Voluntary, harmonized and flexible risk-based standards will ensure that organizations are equipped to evaluate and implement AI tools, systems and services. Standards should be developed through partnership with industry, government and other relevant stakeholders.

Safely Harnessing Synthetic Content’s Potential

• Policymakers should adopt risk-based guardrails for synthetic content that are adaptable and protect beneficial uses.
• Policymakers should support initiatives that seek to validate authentic and credible content, ensuring individuals have sufficient information to identify the source and evaluate trustworthiness of the content they encounter.
• Regulatory guardrails should integrate multiple technical and people-centric approaches to effectively manage the risk of synthetic content to people and society.
• If policymakers create frameworks that impose penalties for harmful AI-generated synthetic content, they should ensure that responsible parties are given an opportunity to remediate.

Read the white papers in full here .