disability in sports essay

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Narrowing the Definition of Social Inclusion in Sport for People with Disabilities through a Scoping Review

Viktorija pečnikar oblak.

1 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; [email protected] (V.P.O.); [email protected] (P.L.); [email protected] (K.P.); [email protected] (M.D.)

Maria João Campos

2 Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal

3 Research Center for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal

Susana Lemos

4 Portuguese Association for Developmental Disorders and Autism of Coimbra (APPDA Coimbra), Hospital Pediátrico de Coimbra, Av. Afonso Romão, 3000-602 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected] (S.L.); [email protected] (M.R.)

Micaela Rocha

Predrag ljubotina.

5 School of Advanced Social Studies Nova Gorica, Gregorčičeva Ulica 19, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia

Kaja Poteko

Orsolya kárpáti.

6 Special Olympics Hungary, H-1146 Budapest, Hungary; [email protected]

Judit Farkas

7 Quality Assurance and Accreditation Office, Hungarian University of Sports Science, H-1123 Budapest, Hungary; [email protected] (J.F.); [email protected] (S.P.)

Szilvia Perényi

Urška kustura.

8 Special Olympics Slovenia, Samova 9, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; [email protected]

Alain Massart

Mojca doupona, associated data.

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

The concept and practice of social inclusion in sport are still undefined, causing confusion both in the field of sport policy and practice. According to the United Nations (UN), a conceptual and analytical work on what constitutes inclusion is needed. Therefore, this study aims to define social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities by reviewing the existing literature. Using a scoping review framework, articles related to a possible definition of social inclusion in sport or to the elements of this definition were reviewed. For the eighteen (18) articles selected, the focus was on 152 statements, which were grouped into 6 main categories, namely: policy (29), fundamental conditions (28), key elements (30), soft skills (20), field gaps (31), and best practices (14). Ten keywords were extracted from each of the six categories using the free online program cortical.io. All 60 keywords were then compared with each other. After deleting the duplicates, 24 keywords remained, which were classified into five major categories: (1) key people, (2) key environments, (3) key ways to use, (4) key benefits, and (5) key barriers, in order to create a descriptive definition of social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities that can contribute to the goals of the UN 2030 Agenda. In addition to the definition, relevant issues were also raised for in-depth discussion and further research.

1. Introduction

Sport is an effective tool for the social inclusion of people with disabilities, and the United Nations (UN) has recognized sport in its 2030 Agenda [ 1 ] as an important contributor to the realization of sustainable development and peace goals due to its promotion of tolerance and respect and facilitation of social inclusion, conflict prevention, and peacebuilding. For the purposes of this paper, “sport” refers to all forms of physical activity that, through occasional or organized participation, aim to express or improve physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels [ 2 ]. The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognizes “that disability is an evolving concept and that disability results from the interaction between persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinders their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others” [ 3 ].

Social inclusion enables all members of the community to acquire vital skills, develop a sense of belonging, and gain independence [ 4 ]. It is a process of improving the conditions for participation in society, especially for people who are disadvantaged [ 5 ], by improving opportunities, access to resources, voice, and respect for rights. While inclusion is a central goal of the 2030 Agenda, conceptual and analytical work on what constitutes inclusion is needed, as well as efforts to improve data availability [ 6 ]. Thus, governments, policy makers, and community leaders should engage other stakeholders, such as private companies, non-governmental organizations, new social movements, and campaign groups, to improve social inclusion, especially for people with disabilities [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. In the context of sport, the concept of social inclusion embraces the heterogeneity of athletes with disabilities and takes their diversity as a starting point for inclusive sport theory and practice. Consequently, the concept is defined and measured in different ways [ 14 ].

There are a growing number of global calls for action for promoting physical activity and sport among people with disabilities (e.g., [ 1 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]). The UN recognizes that people with disabilities have a fundamental right to “full and effective participation” in society, including in sport. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities highlights, in Article 30, the right of persons with disabilities to participate on an equal basis with others in cultural life, including recreational, leisure, and sporting activities, and to have the opportunity to access and participate in general sports activities at all levels, as well as disability-specific sports and leisure activities [ 3 ].

However, there is a gap between policy and practice. The lack of clear wording in policy and the use of vague terminology lead to a misconception of how to operationalize inclusion in practice and generates space for environmental and social barriers that limit the participation of people with disabilities in sport and increase their marginalization and discrimination in society [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ].

Although there is no clear definition of sport and inclusion [ 10 , 20 ] for people with disabilities, it can no longer be said that there is a lack of academic interest in the field of social inclusion in sport [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. For example, using keywords in Google Scholar such as disability or impairment, children and youth, sports clubs, sport, or organized sport and inclusion, approximately 13,100 reviewed articles were found in the databases over the last ten years [ 28 ]. Our review found a wide variety of methods for studying the topic of sport inclusion of people with disabilities, using questionnaires [ 12 , 24 , 29 ] and/or structured, semi-structured interviews or narrative inquiry [ 11 , 24 , 25 , 30 ], Moreover, a confirmatory questionnaire was created to assess the involvement in sport, with an analysis based on theoretical foundations such as the social model of disability, the definition of abilities, the nature of social inclusion/exclusion, sources of motivation, the form of social support, the theory of planned behavior, DeLuca’s four conceptions of inclusion [ 31 ], the block model of empowerment, and social field theory [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 24 , 28 , 29 ].

The research also identifies the perceptions of parents, coaches, disabled people, athletes with disabilities, other partners in sport, management of voluntary clubs, sports organizations responsible for policy, and other groups at risk of social exclusion in European and global countries such as Serbia, Poland, Ukraine, Germany, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Greece, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, England, the Netherlands, Portugal, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, Australia, Africa, the USA, and Asia [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 24 , 25 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ].

There is a need to seek the existing scientific literature for elements of reflection that may contribute to a better definition of the social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities. Despite the great interest of policy makers and academics in the inclusion of people with disabilities, there are no universally accepted definitions of inclusion in the sport literature. This gap contributes to the imprecision of policies [ 13 , 23 ], providing several stakeholders, such as national federations, mainstream sports clubs, among others, a wide degree of freedom in interpreting what constitutes inclusion in their context. Our aim is therefore to analyze the existing literature through a scoping review and propose elements for a definition of social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities so that stakeholders could have a consistent approach to social inclusion in sport and thus support all athletes to reach their full potential, regardless of their abilities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. protocol and search method.

This review was conducted using scoping review methods, as scoping reviews are often conducted to examine and clarify definitions used in the literature [ 33 , 34 ]. In addition, the identification and analysis of knowledge gaps is a common and valuable indication for conducting a scoping review [ 34 ]. Four review components were used (1) identification of the research question; (2) identification of relevant search records; (3) record selection for inclusion; (4) extraction and report of the results.

2.2. Identification of the Research Question

Using the Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome Study (PICOS) design [ 35 , 36 ], we arrived at the research question: What elements can be used for a definition to promote the social inclusion of people with disabilities in sport?

2.3. Identification of Relevant Search Records

To identify evidence, a preliminary literature search was carried out in the Google Scholar search engine to take advantage of the versatility of the sources. Several keywords and strings were tested, and it was found that there is a difference between the two terms “inclusion in sport” and “social inclusion in sport”. Depending on the scope of the paper, articles dealing with social inclusion seemed to be more appropriate. Even with the search string definition of social inclusion in sport in the title, we came across non-existent articles, so we tried to replace the word definition with another, such as “define” or “normative”. In the end, the set “social inclusion and sport or mainstream sport and disability and finance or policies or definitions” was used in the period between 2012 and 2022, generated 2370 articles. The results were sorted by the appropriateness of the titles by three members of the research team with expertise in adapted physical activity. The team selected 200 links and after analysis, 150 titles were rejected. After reviewing the 50 selected articles, another 100 interesting articles emerged from the references. Finally, we came up with 88 articles, but only a few of them were relevant to our research question. Based on this preliminary literature search, we conducted a structured search for relevant studies in four scientific databases (B-on, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus) for the period up to 20 July 2023, using the following search keywords and terms: “social inclusion in sport” or “social inclusion in sport” and “policy” or “policies” and “disability” or “disable” (social inclusion in sport* and polic* and disab*). From 700 links opened, based on titles and abstracts, two members of the research team independently selected eligible articles in the databases, and after removing 20 duplicates, reached 125 in Google Scholar, 22 in B-on, 10 in PubMed, and 7 from Scopus ( Figure 1 ).

PRISMA flow chart for the scoping review process [ 37 ].

2.4. Records Selection for Inclusion

The 164 eligible articles were screened for inclusion by two members of the research team who read the full texts, yielding eighteen (18) full text articles included ( Figure 1 ). After comparing the included articles, in case of doubt, three other members of the team were consulted to make the final decision.

The inclusion criteria used were: people with disability, as a population; social inclusion in sport (mainstream, unified sport, community sport) as context; “tentative of” or “elements for” a definition of social inclusion or policies in sport, for people with disabilities (PWD) or with the potential to help PWD, as a core concept of the scoping review; and publication in peer review periodic (observational and experimental studies, reviews, meta-analyses) in English or the language of the research team as the type of sources.

2.5. Extraction and Report of the Results

For all the selected articles, in a first table, were collected the first author and the year of publication in the first column, the title of the article in the second column, the elements important for defining the research topic in the third column. This was followed by a process of reviewing and classifying the funded elements for a definition, into meaningful, similar categories. Six categories were identified by members of the research team, all of whom have experience of adapted physical activity. A second table was created with the six categories in the first column, the key statements of each category in the second column, and 10 extracted definition keywords by category in the third column [ 38 ]. The 10 extracted definition keywords were obtained using the free Extract Keywords program from cortical.io ( https://www.cortical.io/freetools/extract-keywords/ (accessed on 26 July 2023)). Then, all 60 keywords were compared, and the duplicates were deleted, leaving 24 words, all of which were used to define social inclusion in sport. In a third table, these 24 remaining words were clustered by the research group into 5 keyword groups to facilitate the construction of a successful definition, depending on who the crucial people are, where the best environment is, how best to use it, what the benefits for people are, and what main barriers to avoid.

In an attempt to define social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities based on keywords, 152 important statements were extracted from the selected articles for creating a definition. Table 1 shows only the first three statements from each study. The full statements in each article selected by the research team can be found in the Supplementary Material (Table S1) .

The eighteen (18) selected articles that attempt to define social inclusion in sport for peoples with disabilities.

The 152 statements reached were processed into six key categories, namely: policy (29), fundamental conditions (28), key elements (30), soft skills (20), field gaps (31), and best practices (14). Ten keywords were extracted from each of the six categories using the free online program cortical.io. Table 2 shows only a subjective view of the interesting statements selected by the research team. The full statements included in each category can be found in the Supplementary Material (Table S2) . The ten extracted definition keywords are listed in Table 2 .

The six categories of key statements and the 10 extracted keywords.

Next, all 60 keywords were compared, and after deleting the duplicates, 24 keywords remained, which were reclassified into five important categories: (1) key people, (2) key environments, (3) key ways to use, (4) key benefits, and (5) key barriers ( Table 3 ).

The five categories containing 24 keywords for the definition of social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities.

Consequently, the following descriptive definition of social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities was defined: “Social inclusion in sport is a key approach that ensures all individuals, regardless of their abilities/disabilities or background, can actively participate in sporting activities within mainstream sports organizations. Coaches cater to individual needs, promoting mixed-ability activities to provide equal opportunities for athletes and other participants, like volunteers. The benefits include enriched experiences, improved skills, and a sense of belonging. Researchers’ findings and coaching outcomes support this approach, revealing its positive impact on participants. However, obstacles such as exclusionary norms, attitudinal barriers, and inadequate policies may hinder full participation”.

4. Discussion

In the absence of a clear definition [ 46 ], attempting to define the concept of social inclusion of people with disabilities in sport will help policy makers implement more effective inclusive sport programs. Eighteen (18) studies were selected that included or suggested a definition. To try to establish a definition, we collected 24 of the most commonly used related keywords in the scientific literature.

4.1. The Attempt to Define Social Inclusion in Mainstream Sport for People with Disabilities

Based on the keywords, a definition of social inclusion of people with disabilities in sport was developed:

“ Social inclusion in sport for people with disabilities is a key approach that ensures all individuals, regardless of their abilities/disabilities or backgrounds, can actively participate in sporting activities within mainstream sports organizations. Coaches cater to individual needs, promoting mixed-ability activities to provide equal opportunities for athletes and other participants like volunteers. The benefits include enriched experiences, improved skills, and a sense of belonging. Researchers’ findings and coaching outcomes support this approach, revealing its positive impact on participants. However, obstacles such as exclusionary norms, attitudinal barriers, and inadequate policies may hinder full participation.”

We are aware that some essential aspects for the success of social inclusion in sport are not included in this definition, which highlights that studies may not focus enough on what can really contribute to the effective social inclusion of people with disabilities in sport.

The attempted definition does not say much that is new, nor does it highlight any aspects that are not already known. Instead, it frames and narrows the field. It certainly lacks more specific instructions, such as who is responsible or, as Dyer & Standford emphasize, that sport should be regular, frequent, and sustained [ 52 ]. Our paper is more a collection of researched areas such as policies, basic conditions, key elements, known soft skills, field gaps, and best practices in one place. We do not process the collected material in the form of new knowledge. Instead, we focus on creating a framework definition as a starting point from which we can develop a more structured social inclusion policy in sport with a vision, strategy, model, and implementation at local and national levels.

Depending on their preferences and needs, people with disabilities’ choices to participate in sport can vary greatly: some prefer to train in mainstream clubs because there they can train with people without disability; others feel more comfortable in segregated activities, parallel activities, or mixed activities. Many scholars have argued for giving equal importance to segregated and inclusive approaches, arguing that many people who engage in disability-specific sport may regain their self-confidence, which later enables them to engage in mainstream sport, in a sport development continuum [ 4 , 45 , 46 , 55 ]. It is perhaps too early to claim that true inclusion in sport takes place in sports clubs involving groups with athletes of different abilities, yet there are many authors who support this idea. We can read about the importance of full and partial inclusion [ 46 ], mixed ability groups [ 52 ], the empowerment model [ 28 ], and sport for all [ 42 , 45 , 47 ].

Kiuppis [ 4 ], starting from the inclusion debate in education as the main reference context, has established some basic definitions of sport, disability, quality physical education, and physical literacy, which are the starting point for defining social inclusion in sport. The work is based on four aspects: (1) the aspect of participation, (2) a minimum standard of sport for all, (3) the links between inclusion in sport and quality physical education, disability, and participation, and (4) the consideration of different concepts of inclusion [ 4 ]. This work represents a step forward and focuses more on inclusion in afternoon recreational sport activities that generally take place in sports clubs [ 49 ]. By moving forward, the focus is more on: (1) narrowing the functional definition of social inclusion in sport, (2) highlighting the gaps in this area that lead to a lack of implementation of social inclusion in sport, and (3) understanding the evolving language to avoid misconceptions.

In order to provide stakeholders and researchers with some insights for a more efficient definition, our research team has selected essential statements from all categories that were not reflected in the 24 keywords. Based on this selection, we highlight topics of interest for further research and deeper discussion.

4.2. Misunderstandings and Vagueness

Especially in the last three years, research in the field of social inclusion in sport has expanded considerably, as it is a new concept for decision makers, while good practices based on volunteering have existed since the 1950s. On the other hand, people with disabilities are still considered unable to function as members of normal society in many Asian countries [ 56 ]. There is still no consensus among scholars, practitioners, and policy makers on what constitutes social inclusion [ 45 ]. The idea and concept of inclusion of para-sports is also not defined [ 50 ]. Furthermore, “normalized” and exclusionary concepts and practices in youth sport need to be critically challenged [ 57 ]. Anderson et al. [ 50 ] state that opinions have been expressed that inclusion is an unattainable, utopian goal, but they go on to state that this may be due to a lack of knowledge about accountability and implementation. The results show a discrepancy in the perception of inclusion. They go on to say that no one dares to raise their hand and ask not only what inclusion means, but also how it should be implemented and what should be preserved in the process [ 50 ]. Furthermore, according to Townsend et al. [ 49 ], the question of whether disabilities should be addressed in separate blocks or integrated into the structures of regular education is still hotly debated [ 49 ].

4.3. The Difference between the Mainstream Sports Environment and Specialized Institutions

There is a significant difference between inclusion in the mainstream sport environment and in specialised facilities for people with disabilities or in para-sport. Hums et al. [ 58 ] point out that it is important to note that disability sports organizations (DSOs) are organized and named by disability (cerebral palsy, hearing or visual impairment, etc.), whereas national governing bodies are named by sport. The DSOs have a somewhat better regulated policy and basis, while in sport, this part is just being established through the social inclusion policy. However, the selected articles do not talk about funding, preferring to use terms such as budgetary constraints, lack of available support staff and resources for capacity building, sharing resources and gaining political support, implementing collaborative shared leadership through the joint development and implementing action plans, and re-conceptualizing ideas about responsibility [ 51 ].

Research in a group of mixed ability athletes emphasized that the key to inclusion is a welcoming, supportive general environment, regular and sustained provision, equal membership, and the promotion of self-determination to maximize positive outcomes such as changing perceptions of disability, developing friendships, and promoting personal development [ 52 ]. Other health and social benefits were key factors in prolonged engagement in wheelchair basketball, and it was reported that reverse integration led to better mutual understanding of the impact of (dis)ability [ 59 ]. Ester et al. [ 53 ] also say that participation in sport has a positive impact on psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults.

There is also an important shift from the traditional disability model to the social model of caring for people in the community. Sofokleous & Stylianou [ 60 ] state that social model stimuli had a positive effect on pro-disability policy attitudes, and medical model stimuli had a negative effect on pro-disability policy attitudes. Townsend et al. [ 49 ] write that in specialized or separate institutions for people with disabilities, the medical model of approach, treatment, and mindset is very present [ 49 ]. The definition of social inclusion in sport is therefore based more on the social model that supports sport for all, the empowerment model, and mixed ability sport [ 28 , 42 , 45 , 47 , 52 ].

Many articles also refer to the Unified Sport of the Special Olympics [ 39 , 42 , 52 ] as one of the best practices of social inclusion in sport. Best practices represent one of the developed categories in this article. It is interesting to note that there are few best practices compared to the number of other statements (n = 14). And precisely because Unified Sport, as an activity of a specialized institution for athletes with intellectual disabilities, is so “sung”, it is at the same time, an ideal demonstration of the mixed-ability approach that should be implemented in sports clubs, where it is still in its infancy from the perspective of mass practice.

Successful social inclusion, therefore, requires a change to the social model [ 46 , 49 ], and this is most likely to succeed in mainstream sport.

4.4. The Language and the Explanation of the Key Words Used

In defining social inclusion in sport, it was necessary to understand some terms in a new way. Even though the concept of inclusion is well established in other professional fields such as education and employment, it is new in sport [ 4 , 61 ].

The literature review also revealed that different professional fields such as education, employment, social security, health care, etc. think and write about inclusion somewhat differently. The meaning of inclusion also varies, depending on how it is used and understood in different countries. The “new” phrases about social inclusion in and through sport, written in English and also more characteristic of English speakers, are not necessarily understood in the same way in other languages. Even a search of the literature on inclusion in sport showed us that one has to specify the term “social inclusion” to get the right results in the browser, as the word “inclusion” itself is too broad. All this contributes to the vagueness of the field, which is also noticeable in the legal framework [ 46 ].

The language of social inclusion in sport should be very positive and chosen to support anyone interested in regular sport and exercise. Both the terminology and the approach go beyond the mere use of the body and emphasize, above all, the social touch in the sense of social action, social networks, and social capital that excludes no one [ 32 , 45 ].

4.5. Social Inclusion in Sport

Thus, social inclusion in sport is the most comprehensive concept and refers to all athletes and others involved in sport, such as parents, volunteers, coaches, managers of sports organizations, sports federations, as well as specialized entities such as organizations for the disabled, asylum seekers’ homes, humanitarian organizations, sponsors, and donors [ 4 , 28 , 46 , 47 ]. It includes all types of sports, from weekly recreational sports to competitive sports. Social inclusion in sport means caring for all who participate in sport, especially the vulnerable [ 28 , 40 , 42 , 46 , 47 ]. These may be children, adolescents, or adult athletes who need adjustments due to various psychophysical conditions, illnesses, or other personal circumstances. They may be in a socially vulnerable situation, face resettlement, have refugee status, belong to a different ethnic minority, and therefore have fewer opportunities, face injury, end their elite sports career and find themselves in a new situation they are not familiar with, have difficulty balancing sports and school or sports and work in the so-called dual career system and others. In the search for a definition, we have deliberately avoided dividing sport into sport and para-sport or sport for people with disabilities. The concept of social inclusion in sport is also characterized by the fact that it encompasses sport as a whole [ 42 , 43 ].

4.6. Mainstream Sport Environment

The term “mainstream sport” is deliberately chosen in the definition to refer to participation in sport in majority, dominant, traditional, and mass sport organizations, such as sports clubs, rather than specialized, segregated, minority, or disabled organizations, such as disability associations. While the latter are not excluded, they are intentionally not highlighted because they already exist and are “too entrenched”. Since segregation is so historically present, the attempted definition emphasizes the place where inclusive sports programs should take place [ 46 ]. We called it the mainstream sport environment, and it includes mainly classical sport organizations, such as sport clubs, because it is well known that para-sport in Europe is mainly practiced in special organizations with disability status [ 19 , 28 , 39 , 43 , 46 ]. But the situation in this field is already changing. The trend is for all world sports federations to take para-sport disciplines under their wing (Source: IPC members approve new constitution at General Assembly (paralympic.org)).

4.7. Important Persons

Using our keywords, most studies were found that refer to people with disabilities. However, they may also refer to other vulnerable groups at risk of social exclusion, such as young people, drug users, women, immigrants, senior citizens, ethnic minorities, prisoners, homeless people, and homosexual athletes [ 9 , 62 ]. Most articles addressed people/athletes with disabilities in general, but some only addressed Paralympic athletes [ 25 , 41 , 54 ], athletes with an intellectual disability [ 39 , 48 ], and also people with mental illness [ 53 ].

Research has shown that contact with people with disabilities may be the most important measure to promote the formation of positive attitudes towards the inclusion of people with disabilities [ 8 , 29 , 39 , 63 ]. Increased awareness has helped to establish accessible sports facilities and organized sport programs for people with disabilities, and this has been shown to reduce marginalization [ 8 ]. Commercial interest in sport is driven by proximity to spectators, who become consumers, and the desire of companies to target these people to sell their products. Unfortunately, the role of marketing Paralympic sport is the first perspective that fails in most countries. But the media is one of the catalysts for the commercial perspective of Paralympic sport and funding from governing bodies [ 41 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ] that can achieve change.

4.8. Best Practices

Throughout the articles, we have come across the distinction between social inclusion in sport and through sport. Marivoet [ 22 ] defines social inclusion in sport as the actual presence of equal opportunities in accessing vulnerable people. In this regard, good practices pay attention to non-discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, disability, gender, sexual orientation, social class, or other grounds. It further states that social inclusion through sport refers to the development of personal, social, or physical activity, or other abilities. The best practice here aims to promote formative sport, which means that the ethical principles of sport and the values associated with it are paramount. [ 40 ]. The definition attempted in this paper is further developed based on actual existing cases, but also includes developmental issues.

4.9. Key Barriers

In the articles consulted, two main reasons are given to explain the multiple barriers faced by people with disabilities: (1) ableism and (2) the lack of concrete policies. Chouinard [ 68 ] defines ableism as ideas, practices, institutions, and social relations that presume able-bodiedness. With ability at the heart of sport, the assumption that sport is only for healthy people reflects an ableist culture seen at peak events, such as the Olympics, Paralympics, and Commonwealth Games, that privileges people with typical abilities while labelling people with impairments as deficient and undesirable. Previous policy failures in New Zealand suggest that it is worth questioning the extent to which disability sport is characterized by ableist structures [ 69 ]. Social integration of people with disabilities in sport organizations, particularly mainstream sport clubs, is still an unacknowledged topic in sport science research and probably reflects a lack of interest from this scientific community, as it may be too much ableist-oriented [ 43 ]. Removing the distinction between disability and mainstream sport thus requires a significant rethink, as the focus is still on the normative non-disabled body [ 52 ].

The political context, with the functions, objectives, and characteristics of public policies, can also facilitate or hinder the practice of sport for people with disabilities [ 62 ], with knowledge or lack of awareness of the issue of social inclusion in sport playing an important role. In most public sport policies, countries and governments are influenced by international recommendations, so they have made the development and promotion of equality and inclusion a requirement. This is an ideal that can guide governments, policy makers, and community leaders to prevent and mitigate the marginalization of vulnerable social groups [ 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 45 , 46 ]. Legislation often assigns a leading role to sports clubs and associations in providing sports opportunities. These policies are mostly rhetorical and based on poorly developed and unclear justifications. They lack clear explanations and use vague terminology and methodology, making them confusing and open to different views and interpretations. These national policies do not explain how inclusion can be operationalized in practice [ 50 ]. Moreover, they are not specific to ability/disability and do not include specifics for underrepresented or vulnerable groups. Years ago, questions were raised about where disability sports fit into the governance structures of the United States Olympic Committee and how funds would be reallocated to support the new structure [ 58 ], but today we know that the Olympic and Paralympic Committees are in agreement (Source: https://www.usopc.org/about-the-usopc (accessed on 27 July 2023)). Creating space for interpretation results in institutional, environmental, and social barriers that limit the participation of people with disabilities in sport and increase their marginalization and discrimination in society [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 28 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. The unchanged participation of people with disabilities in sport is defined as a serious sociopolitical situation that requires new approaches. Therefore, a more critical and theoretically grounded approach to social inclusion is needed to avoid focusing on the notion of assimilation instead of standing for equality and social justice. Unfortunately, not all associations have the human and material resources for adequate social inclusion. However, they are interested in assimilation, if they receive government funding to implement the changes. According to reports and research, few resources are available for structural improvements of facilities and coaching hours to improve social inclusion in sport [ 13 , 24 , 47 ].

Lack of awareness and professional training is a barrier to participation in physical activities by people with disabilities [ 12 , 43 , 51 , 62 ]. Disability is ignored in many mainstream coach educations programs, and a lack of competence is often observed among many coaches [ 46 , 47 ]. Inadequate funding is also cited as a major obstacle, with only modest funding available for structural improvements to facilities and for coaching hours dedicated to improving the inclusiveness of programs [ 12 , 13 , 19 , 47 , 51 ]. Policy makers need to ensure adequate financial support for high participation and inclusion expectations, adapted sports facilities, professional guidance, a focus on participation rather than competition, and the provision of more social competitions [ 19 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 62 , 70 ]. For sport practices to be inclusive and linked to equity, policy development needs to be participatory, with input from people with disabilities who bring their knowledge, experience, and practice, to engage with their own perspectives [ 45 , 70 , 71 ]. Milani & Starepravo [ 72 ] emphasize that regardless of the usefulness of sport for rehabilitation, income, educational purposes, or recreational activities, it is necessary that projects and programs are supported by government policies that enable social interaction between people with and without disabilities. [ 72 ]. Grandisson et al. [ 44 ] add that practicing sport to foster positive and meaningful relationships with a sense of belonging that can extend beyond the sports fields requires stakeholders from specialized, semi specialized, and regular institutions to pool their resources to develop innovative programs.

There were several limitations that are worth mentioning. Although the search included four databases, only peer-reviewed articles and not books were included in the scoping review, so some relevant literature may have been excluded. Secondly, several research members monitored the selection process for the scoping review, which may lead to inconsistencies, as different experts may suggest different topics and categories.

This scoping review should be a step towards conducting future research to narrow the acknowledged gap between policy and practice. Given the international requirements and concerns around the issue, future initiatives should focus on providing additional information on how sports clubs can be funded to include people with disabilities.

5. Conclusions

We do not claim that the attempt to define social inclusion in sport is definitive or complete. Rather, it is a first attempt that highlights elements of reflection that may contribute to a better definition to promote social inclusion of people with disabilities in sport, and through which we aim to encourage other researchers and decision makers to contribute to a better definition. In order to arrive at an effective definition, further studies are needed that focus on what would really contribute to change or progress.

The attempted definition is aimed at decision makers around the world, as they are the ones who can enable the conditions (social, financial, and contextual) and give clear meaning to an equal understanding of the field.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/healthcare11162292/s1 , Table S1: The eighteen selected articles that attempt a definition of social inclusion in sports for people with disabilities; Table S2: The six categories of key statements and the 10 extracted keywords.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by ERASMUS-SPORT-2021-SCP Meter Matters Project, ID: 101050372, which is approved for the period from 1 June 2022 to 31 May 2024.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.P.O., M.J.C., S.L., M.R., P.L., O.K., K.P., J.F., S.P., U.K., A.M. and M.D.; methodology, V.P.O., M.J.C., J.F., S.P., P.L., A.M. and M.D.; formal analysis, V.P.O., A.M. and M.D.; investigation, V.P.O., M.J.C., A.M. and M.D.; writing—original draft preparation, V.P.O., A.M. and M.D.; writing—review and editing, M.J.C., S.L., M.R., P.L., O.K., K.P., J.F., S.P. and U.K.; methodology, V.P.O., M.J.C., J.F., S.P. and P.L.; visualization, M.J.C. and K.P.; supervision, M.D.; project administration, V.P.O. and M.D.; funding acquisition, V.P.O., M.J.C., A.M. and M.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval for this study was waived because it is a review article and does not contain new research data.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

The power of sport for inclusion: Including persons with disabilities in sport

Sport has the potential to be a catalyst for inclusion and people who work in sport have a responsibility to make this happen. Sport is better when its purpose and direction aim toward inclusion. Inclusion in and through sport means providing every person full respect, dignity, value and belonging in any roles they may play - athlete, coach, official, administrator, or spectator. Inclusion encompasses all populations across race, culture, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and disability. Sport for inclusion matters because it promotes the values, ideals and vision for acceptance, human rights and non-discrimination. Sport for inclusion questions and challenges the very notion of exclusion.  

Inclusion only becomes inclusion when persons with disabilities are not just present but engaged in meaningful ways. Persons with disabilities need to be a part of all inclusion initiatives in and through sport. When sport is not fully inclusive of persons with disabilities, it neglects a critical population that has a rightful and central place in the sporting environment.

By including persons with disabilities, sport also provides opportunities for innovation and recognizes the range of diversity within the disability community itself. Sport can provide a variety of mainstream and disability-specific opportunities across the inclusion spectrum for persons with disabilities.

Furthermore, including persons with disabilities can be approached from the perspectives of empowerment, innovation and opportunity while challenging the status quo of pity, stigma and fear. When sport includes persons with disabilities, it becomes transformative not just for the participants, but also for families, coaches, administrators, spectators and event or program sponsors.

When we design sport for inclusion we begin to recognize and realize the full potential of sport for all. It is important to note that when we design environments for persons with disabilities we are often designing for everyone. The framework of sport for inclusion, and not sport for exclusion, is critical to the sustainability and the future of sport and particularly sport for development and peace. The power of sport for inclusive environments works to create the vision of a better world for all.   

We would like to thank all the people who contributed to this special collection focusing on including persons with disabilities in sport. Insights poured in from around the world showcasing the amazing work people are doing to build full inclusion of persons with disabilities in and through sport.

In a world at times beset with division and disarray, what people are doing in everyday ways illustrates that we are all one and true change happens from the ground up. The work we have read about in their voices provides hope for a better, more inclusive society. While some people may say “Hope is not a strategy”, hope powered by the hard work of everyday people is the equation to create a more inclusive world. Persons with disabilities have much to offer and sport provides a vehicle to make their powerful presence known. 

Eli A. Wolff directs the Power of Sport Lab, a platform to fuel and magnify creativity, diversity, connection and leadership through sport. Eli is also an instructor with the Sport Management program at the University of Connecticut, the Sport Leadership program at UMass-Boston, and is co-founder and advisor to the Sport and Society initiative at Brown University. His work has been at the intersection of research, education and advocacy in and through sport, with a focus on sport and social justice, diversity, disability and inclusion. Eli has co-founded Disability in Sport International, Athletes for Human Rights, the Olympism Project, and Mentoring for Change.

Mary A. Hums, Ph.D. is a Professor of Sport Administration at the University of Louisville. Hums has co-authored/co-edited 5 Sport Management textbooks, over 150 articles and book chapters and made over 200 presentations to various scholarly associations both in the United States and abroad. Her main research interest is policy development in sport organizations, especially in regard to inclusion of people with disabilities and also sport and human rights.

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Managing disability sport: From athletes with disabilities to inclusive organisational perspectives

2014, Sport Management Review

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Analysis of the literature is critical to the growth of the field because the body of knowledge must be correct. In this growing area of research, this current study is an examination of 34 of over one hundred sport management journals in a search for one topic, Disability Sport. Disability Sport is a growing part of the sport business industry and should receive adequate coverage in the literature. Findings show that merely .016% (n=89) of the 5,443 papers over a 10-year period of time in 34 journals are about disability sport. This is the first study of its kind and was limited to 34 journals as were selected by experts. The results are discussed to provide direction for future scholarship toward addressing this weakness in the literature.

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Can sport provide a platform for disability awareness as regards both social and biological dimensions? How can sport serve as a tool or means of social inclusion for persons or athletes with disabilities? To address these questions our qualitative study begins with a review of current research on the social dimensions of disability, namely diverse forms of social exclusion experienced by "those of us with disabilities" (McCall, 2016), such as attitudinal, institutional and environmental barriers, subsequently followed by a case study in Greece. Initially, we discuss today’s shift to inclusion—which advocates a more inclusive and people-first perspective as well as a more empowering language—and distinguish between two concepts/approaches, integration and inclusion, mainly through educational schemes, so as to facilitate the analysis that follows on sport’s role in eliminating social and institutional barriers and promoting inclusion. Inclusive education is a central objective of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), and other UN and UNESCO initiatives. In this context researchers have been examining sport and physical education as tools, instruments or means of social inclusion and/or integration. Accordingly, to determine whether—and to what extent—sport participation contributes to the inclusion and integration of people with physical disabilities, interviews were conducted with 20 athletes in Athens: semi-structured interviews with 14 male and 6 female Paralympic and World Champions. The findings confirm that both genders confront many forms of social exclusion (attitudinal, environmental and institutional), however their sport participation plays a significant and positive role in their lives. All 20 acknowledge or report sport gives them a social identity, a sport identity and a meaning in life, in addition to contributing to their social integration/inclusion. Conclusions: The lack of disability awareness, information and knowledge accounts for many of the barriers. Recognizing both the social and biological dimensions of disability is important. The disability community needs visibility, i.e. coverage in mainstream media to cultivate inclusion, promote and reproduce role models and mentors, along with a wider disability awareness campaign, in which sport could play a vital role in changing stereotypes and attitudes, in addition to eliminating the supercrip identity. Keywords: integration, inclusion, inclusive education, physical disability, supercrip identity, sport identity, social exclusion, empowering language-terminology, mainstream media

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In the context of 'Sport for All' we begin by considering the dominant understandings of disability found within society, the medical and social models. Despite a somewhat simplistic binary, these models speak to the different ways in which disabled people are ‘visible’ in sport and leisure. Attention then focuses on separate and integrated provision and we consider the different circumstances and identify the problems and merits associated with each type of provision. In doing this, it is not our intention to present one type of provision as better than the other and our coverage is not exhaustive. Rather we hope this paper offers an insight into the possibilities and challenges that emerge when enabling disabled people to participate in sport and leisure.

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WeThe15 is the biggest ever human rights movement to end discrimination towards the world’s 1.2 billion persons with disabilities who represent 15% of the global population.

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Launched at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, WeThe15 has initiated change over the next decade by bringing together the biggest coalition ever of international organisations from the world of sport, human rights, policy, communications, business, arts and entertainment.

At a time when diversity and inclusion are hot topics, the 15% who have a disability want effective change to remove the inequality and inactivity. Like race, gender and sexual orientation, we want to have a movement all persons with disabilities can rally behind. A global movement that is publicly campaigning for disability visibility, inclusion and accessibility.

WeThe15 shines a light on 15% of the world’s population. It is building greater knowledge of the barriers and discrimination persons with disabilities face on a daily basis at all levels of society. By doing so we will break down these barriers so all persons with disabilities can fulfil their potential and be active and visible members of an inclusive society.

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The unique ability of sports to transcend linguistic, cultural and social barriers makes it an excellent platform for strategies of inclusion and adaptation.  Furthermore, the universal popularity of sport and its physical, social and economic development benefits make it an ideal tool for fostering the inclusion and well-being of persons with disabilities.

Persons with disabilities often face societal barriers and disability evokes negative perceptions and discrimination in many societies.  As a result of the stigma associated with disability, persons with disabilities are generally excluded from education, employment and community life which deprives them of opportunities essential to their social development, health and well-being. In some societies persons with disabilities are considered dependent and seen as incapable, thus fostering inactivity which often causes individuals with physical disabilities to experience restricted mobility beyond the cause of their disability.

Sport can help reduce the stigma and discrimination associated with disability because it can transforms community attitudes about persons with disabilities by highlighting their skills and reducing the tendency to see the disability instead of the person. Through sport, persons without disabilities interact with persons with disabilities in a positive context forcing them to reshape assumptions about what persons with disabilities can and cannot do.

Sport changes the person with disability in an equally profound way by empowering persons with disabilities to realize their full potential and advocate for changes in society.  Through sport, persons with disabilities acquire vital social skills, develop independence, and become empowered to act as agents of change.  Sport teaches individuals how to communicate effectively as well as the significance of teamwork and cooperation and respect for others.  Sport is also well-suited to reducing dependence and developing greater independence by helping persons with disabilities to become physically and mentally stronger.  These skills can be transferred into other new arenas including employment and advocacy work further helping to build self-sufficiency.

The power of sport as a transformative tool is of particular importance for women as women with disabilities often experience double discrimination on the basis of their gender and disability.  It is reported that 93% of women with disabilities are not involved in sport and women comprise only one-third of athletes with disabilities in international competitions.  By providing women with disabilities the opportunity to compete and demonstrate their physical ability, sport can help to reduce gender stereotypes and negative perceptions associated with women with disabilities.

Moreover, by improving the inclusion and well-being of persons with disabilities, sport can also help to advance the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).  For example, sports-based opportunities can help achieve the goal of universal primary education (MDG2) by reducing stigma preventing children with disabilities from attending school; promote gender equality (MDG3) by empowering women and girls with disabilities to acquire health information, skills, social networks, and leadership experience; and lead to increased employment and lower levels of poverty and hunger (MDG1) by helping to reduce stigma and increase self-confidence.

The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is the first legally binding international instrument to address the rights of persons with disabilities and sport.  Article 30 of the Convention addresses both mainstream and disability-specific sport and stipulates that “States Parties shall take appropriate measures to encourage and promote the participation, to the fullest extent possible, of persons with disabilities in mainstream sporting activities at all levels".  It also calls upon Governments, States party to the Convention, to ensure that persons with disabilities have access to sport and recreational venues — as spectators and as active participants.  This also requires that children with disabilities be included in physical education within the school system “to the fullest extent possible” and enjoy equal access to "play, recreation and leisure and sporting activities”.

Resources on disability and sports

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 30 - Participation in cultural life, recreation, leisure and sport

General Assembly Resolution: Sport as a means to promote education, health, development and peace (A/RES/69/6)

International Disability in Sport Working Group Sport in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities International Platform on Sport and Development (2008)

National Disability Authority Promoting the Participation of People with Disabilities in Physical Activity and Sport in Ireland

Sport for Development and Peace Working Group International Working Group: Harnessing the Power of Sport for Development and Peace: Recommendations to Government (2008) Chapter Five: Sport and Persons with Disabilities: Fostering  Inclusion and Well-Being

World Health Organization Young People with Disability in Physical Education/ Physical Activity/Sport In and Out of Schools: Technical Report for the World Health Organization

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Sports and Physical Activity for Persons with Disabilities- Awareness, Understanding, Action

United Nations Sport for Development and Peace – Sport and Persons with Disabilities Thematic Working Group Major disability-related sporting events include:

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5 Barriers to Greater Participation in Disability Sports

After the 2012 Paralympics , disability and para sports suddenly became common knowledge, and more people wanted to try them because they actually knew they existed. However, many soon realized it wasn’t that simple. Here are some of the biggest barriers of getting into disability sports:

1.  Finding a club and coach. Although disability sports are becoming well known and more popular, there aren’t many coaches or clubs around. If you are lucky to live in an area that campaigns for disability sports and has disability sports organizations, you can generally find a club and coach. If not, you may have to travel a significant distance to get to training sessions, meaning that if you are unable to drive, you can’t get there. This sadly stops a lot of people from doing the sports they want to do, so they either don’t participate in sports or have to choose another sport. 2. The cost. The sport you choose to participate in and the nature of your disability will determine the equipment you will need. Running as an able-bodied athlete costs very little; all you need is a pair of decent trainers. However, disability sports require very specific equipment and a lot of it is custom-built for the individual. For wheelchair racing , the equivalent of running, you will need your own gloves and eventually your own chair, which can cost up to £4000! On top of that there are club membership fees, race entry costs and more. I know the cost has sadly stopped many people getting involved in sports, simply because they can’t afford it.

3. Classifications. Once you have found a sport you enjoy, you’re past the first hurdle. If you decide you want to take your sport to a competitive level, you have to go through a classification process. This process is different for every sport, and from my experience it is not a particularly pleasant one. There is a list of conditions that can be classified in a particular way, and if your disability/condition is not on that list anywhere, you may not be able to get a classification.

The only exception to this I have found is in rowing, where they not only have para-classifications but also adaptive rower classifications. The para-rowing classifications are conditions on the classification list and adaptive rowers are people with conditions that aren’t on the list, but who have disabilities and are unable to row “normally.” I hope more sports start to allow adaptive athletes to compete.

4. Getting equipment to races. This sounds so simple, but I have found it is one of my biggest issues with many wheelchair sports. Racing wheelchairs, multi-sport wheelchairs, hand-bikes etc. are all very big and tend not to fit into cars. Most sports chairs don’t fold or come apart. You can take the wheels off some which sometimes helps, but it’s incredibly difficult to fit a sports chair and a regular day chair plus more than one person in a car — unless you are amazing at Tetris or have a van. I believe this is one of the main things that stops people from being able to progress higher in their chosen wheelchair sport.

5. The fear of judgment. I don’t know a single disabled sportsman or woman who is not concerned about losing disability benefits due to participating in sports. You are judged on every aspect of your life, meaning that if you are active and do sports, you at risk of being deemed no longer eligible for benefits, even if the activities you do are disability sports. There are also still a lot of people that judge disabled people and assume disabled people can’t work, can’t do things for themselves and that they just stay at home doing nothing all day. They believe if disabled people participate in sports, they must be exaggerating their conditions and therefore they shouldn’t be getting help or be on benefits. Thankfully this view is slowly disappearing, but it can still put people off.

Disability sports are gradually becoming more popular and well-known. The participation levels have gone up dramatically, and I believe it is due to the media now reporting and showing more para-sports on TV. However, there are still many barriers that stop people from being able to do the sports they want to. Slowly things are improving as companies are making cheaper sports wheelchairs and equipment to allow sports to be more accessible, but there is still a lack of clubs and coaches. Hopefully things will continue to improve so every person who wants to access sports is able to, no matter their disability or income. Fingers crossed that one day sports will be fully inclusive!

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One of the most popular programs offered by the Bay Area Outreach and Recreation Program (BORP) is handcycling, which allows people who cannot use their legs the chance to ride bikes at places like the Bay Trail along Richardson Bay in Tiburon.

Photo by Scot Goodman .

Bay Area Resources for Accessible Outdoors

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Universal access to nature and recreational activities is a work in progress, and opportunities, though currently somewhat limited, are expanding.

Trips and Outdoor Activities

Access Adventure

Provides overland wilderness access for people with disabilities through travel on wheelchair-accessible horse-drawn carriages, mostly in the East Bay. For a listing of 2006 events:

www.acornnmr.com/ncdc/ACCESSADVENTURECALENDAR2006.pdf

Bay Area Association of Disabled Sailors (BAADS) – San Francisco

Provides sailing instruction and boat accessibility for people with any degree of disability and at any level of sailing ability. Outings are scheduled every weekend, rain or shine, and listed in BAADS’s online Events Calendar. Based at Pier 40 in San Francisco.

(415)281-0212

www.baads.org

Bay Area Outreach and Recreation Program (BORP) – Berkeley

BORP’s Adventures & Outings Program offers a wide array of outdoor recreation activities for people of diverse abilities, including group adventure trips, handcycling, and urban outings that appeal to people of all ages, interests, and abilities. Families and friends are welcome. Activities take place nearly every weekend of the year and are listed on BORP’s online Events Calendar. Financial aid is available.

(510)849-4663

www.borp.org

Environmental Traveling Companions (ETC) – San Francisco

Offers whitewater rafting, sea kayaking, and cross-country skiing adventures for people of all ages with mobility, vision, or hearing impairments; emotional or developmental disabilities; or serious illnesses. ETC books trips for agencies, schools, and individuals with special needs, along with their families and friends. Also offers a Youth Leadership Program for teens of diverse backgrounds and abilities. Sliding-scale scholarships available for all programs. Call for dates or check web site.

(415)474-7662

www.etctrips.org

Giant Steps Equestrian Center – Petaluma

This nonprofit, therapeutic equestrian center in Petaluma provides interaction with horses in a safe and secure setting for people of all ages and serves those with a wide range of disabilities. Lessons are individually designed to suit each rider’s particular need, ability, and stamina.

(707)769-8900

www.giantstepsriding.org

Healing Waters

Through wilderness adventures, this San Francisco-based nonprofit organization’s mission seeks to empower, inspire, and enrich the lives of people with HIV/AIDS.

(415)552-1190

www.hwaters.org

On the Level SF – San Francisco Excursions

Offers a number of guided nature walks in San Francisco’s parks and green spaces, all level, safe for wheelchairs and walkers, and most of them beginning at public transportation stops. On the Level also publishes inexpensive brochures for self-guided tours (available at many S.F. retail outlets or by mail). Reduced guided walk fees for seniors and people with disabilities.

(415)921-1382

www.onthelevelsf.com

Ride-A-Wave – Santa Cruz

Provides a full day of professionally supervised beach activities, including surfing, body boarding, swimming, beach games, lifesaving demonstrations, kayaking, and marine biology, for children and adults with physical or developmental disabilities. Most activities take place in the Santa Cruz area.

(831)239-3672

www.rideawave.org

Shared Adventures – Santa Cruz

Offers a year-round calendar of recreational activities in the Santa Cruz area, including horseback riding, kayaking, sailing, beach activities, scuba diving, and more, for people with physical and developmental disabilities. Activities are listed on the organization’s web site and are also available through a mailing list.

(831)459-7210

www.sharedadventures.com

Books and Web Sites

A Wheelchair Rider’s Guide: San Francisco Bay and the Nearby Coast

by Bonnie Lewkowicz, Coastal Conservancy Publications, Oakland, Calif. , 2006. 208 pages. Describes more than 100 accessible hikes and campsites along the Bay Area coastline from Point Reyes to Santa Cruz. This free guide includes maps, photos, directions, and area histories, as well as descriptions of the experience of going out on the trails. Call (510)286-1015 or download from the Coastal Conservancy web site at www.scc.ca.gov .

Access Santa Cruz County: Resource Guide for People with Special Needs and Physical Challenges (2003)

Bilingual (Spanish-English) 65-page guide from Shared Adventures to the sights, sounds, and flavors of Santa Cruz County (including a section on parks and recreation) for wheelchair users, people with developmental disabilities, and their caregivers. Available in print for $3; call (831)459-7210 or download from www.scaccessguide.com .

Access Northern California

Web site provides information about travel and recreational opportunities in Northern California for people with physical disabilities.

www.accessnca.com

Accessible Trails and Parks on the San Francisco Peninsula and in the South Bay

This web page on the web site of the Bay Area-based Trail Center provides both HTML and PDF versions of the Trail Center’s excellent guide to accessible trails in San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz counties. The guide was created in 1998 and updated in 2000. www.trailcenter.org/guides/disabilities/disabilities.htm .

Bay Area Hiker: All-Access and Easy Trails in the San Francisco Bay Area

Web page lists all-access as well as easy-rated trails around the Bay Area, with detailed hike descriptions, maps, and links to additional information.

www.bahiker.com/extras/allaccess.html

San Francisco Bay Area Wheelchair-Accessible Trails

Web site with extensive information about dozens of wheelchair accessible hiking trails, mostly in the East Bay and Marin. Trail reviews include accessibility and “enjoyability” ratings, detailed descriptions, maps, and public transit information. The site also has links to other sources of trail information.

www.wheelchairtrails.net

Trails of the Diablo Valley: Paved Multiuse Trails

Web page features descriptions of several paved, mostly level trails in Contra Costa County and the Berkeley hills, with links to maps of most.

www.geocities.com/Yosemite/Trails/6016/paved

Accessible Features of Area Parks

East Bay Regional Parks District Trail Accessibility Reports

Web page provides trail accessibility reports for more than two dozen of the East Bay regional parks, including details of trail length, trail type, trail uses (hiking, bicycles, dogs, equestrian), elevation change, and a number of other features. Beach wheelchairs (large tires) are now available for day use by the public (first come, first served) at many district beaches, including Crown Beach, Temescal, and Shadow Cliffs.

www.ebparks.org/parks/accessibility/reports

Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District Full-Access Trails

Web page provides brief descriptions, including trail length and grade, of several all-access trails in the district’s parklands, with links to the full web pages for the hikes. An “Easy Access Packet” of brochures for parks with accessible features is available by phone (650/691-1200) or email ( [email protected] ). www.openspace.org/activities/accessible_trails.asp

Santa Clara County Parks

Joseph D. Grant and Sanborn parks have all-access paved trails; some campgrounds have accessible features. Web pages for specific parks provide brief descriptions of accessibility and maps of campgrounds. Further information is available by phone from the reservations department (408/355-2201).

www.sccgov.org/portal/site/parks (select the “Find a Park” menu option)

Marin County Department of Parks and Open Space

Information about accessibility of Marin County parks is available by phone at (415)507-2816. An updated edition of Open Spaces: Lands of the Marin County Open Space District by Barry Spitz, with a projected release date of fall 2006, will include information about trail accessibility.

www.co.marin.ca.us/pos/MCOSD/home.asp

Accessible Features in California State Parks

Web site provides information about accessible features of individual California state parks, including camping, trails, beach and shore access, and links to downloadable maps.

http://access.parks.ca.gov/

(916)445-8949

Armstrong Redwoods State Reserve

The Discovery Trail located within this primeval redwood forest includes a wheelchair-accessible pathway, interpretive panels in Braille, and a tree-hugging platform. Also within the reserve, the self-guided Armstrong Nature Trail provides an easy stroll through the grove and is also wheelchair accessible.

(707)869-2015

www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=450

California Coastal Commission: Beach Wheelchairs

The California Coastal Commission web site provides a list of California beaches that provide free day use of sand-friendly wheelchairs to the public. Some chairs may be reserved ahead while others are first come, first served. Phone numbers for individual sites at www.coastal.ca.gov/access/beach-wheelchairs.html .

Golden Gate National Recreation Area (GGNRA) Accessibility

Web page briefly describes accessible areas within GGNRA parklands. (As of September 2006, the GGNRA website was undergoing renovation and some of the pages—including the accessibility page—were not available. If the listed web link does not work, call the phone number for accessibility information.)

(415)561-4700

www.nps.gov/goga/pphtml/accessibility.html

Accessibility at Point Reyes National Seashore

Web page provides brief descriptions of accessible features of visitor centers, trails, beaches, and other points of interest at Point Reyes National Seashore. Manual wheelchairs are available to people with limited mobility for free use in the surrounding area at the Bear Valley, Ken Patrick, and Lighthouse visitors centers (first come, first served.)

(415)464-5100

www.nps.gov/pore/visit_accessibility.htm

Audubon Canyon Ranch

Bolinas Lagoon Preserve hosts one of the largest great blue heron, great egret and snowy egret nesting sites on the West Coast and averages close to 100 active nest sites yearly in groves of redwoods on the property. Bolinas Lagoon Preserve offers an accessible picnic area with spotting scopes and views of nesting birds. The “Bird Hide” (a yard under the nesting area), the education and exhibit hall, and the bookstore are also fully accessible.

(415)868-9244

www.egret.org

About the Author

Bay Area native Jessica Taekman spends her spare time hiking, surfing, and baking.

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Nike’s Commitment to Supporting Athletes Continues Beyond the Summer of Sport

• September 09, 2024

What to know

• During the Paris 2024 Games, Nike demonstrated its always-on commitment to creating an equitable and inclusive future of sport.
• Nike’s Coach the Dream: Future of Youth Sport Summit gathered partners, coaching experts and community leaders last week to shape the next chapter of inclusive youth sport and coaching — and included the announcement of new grants.
• In July, Nike and France’s National Sports Agency published a playbook through their Team Go Girls initiative, providing organizations across the country helpful guidance in removing barriers that girls face when accessing sport.
• Nike is continuing its involvement with the Olympic Refuge Foundation through a project that offers sport clubs in the Paris area training on how to best provide safe experiences for all individuals and increase access to sport for recently arrived refugees.
• Finally, Nike’s new career program, GameOn, is designed to expand and develop the talent pipeline of individuals who pursue careers in sports by providing meaningful work experience for all athletes, including those with disabilities.

As a summer of sport comes to a close, Nike is continuing its support for athletes in Paris and beyond through initiatives that harness the power of movement to create a brighter future for all.

Nike is underscoring its commitment to the next generation through its Coach the Dream: Future of Youth Sport Summit, held last week in Paris alongside the Paralympic Games. During the four-day summit at Sport dans la Ville 's new campus, co-funded by Nike, the brand brought together 35 partners and more than 70 coaching experts and community leaders to shape the next chapter of inclusive youth sport and coaching.

The summit was born from Nike’s foundational belief that all youth deserve allies who understand them and are equipped to coach their dreams — helping them achieve their greatest potential and develop a lifelong love for sport. In this spirit, the brand will apply learnings from the summit to help fund initiatives that aim to foster more inclusive coaching experiences and sport environments for youth across Europe, the Middle East and Africa.

“Coaching is Nike’s heritage and future, and we know the positive impact coaches have on youth,” says Vanessa Garcia-Brito, VP, Chief Impact Officer, NIKE, Inc. “Together with our community partners, we’re powering the future of youth sport to improve sport access and experience. The world needs more coaches who reflect the kids and communities they serve, and we’re excited to continue investing in this work in Paris and around the world.”

In a parallel effort designed to engage girls in sport, Nike and France’s National Sports Agency published a playbook through their Team Go Girls initiative, providing organizations across the country helpful guidance to remove barriers to sport that girls face. Incorporating data and learnings from more than 140 digital challenges and 35 weekly community activities organized exclusively for 1,250 girls throughout Paris and nearby Pantin over 10 months, the playbook aims to drive an increase in girls-only programs in roughly 50 French cities beginning this fall.

Meanwhile, Nike is continuing its involvement with the Olympic Refuge Foundation’s Paris-based program, Terrains d’Avenir , through a project that offers Paris-area sport clubs training on how to best provide safe experiences for all individuals and increase access to sport for recently arrived refugees. This work is complemented by various initiatives aimed at improving access to sport for displaced girls and young women in the greater Paris area.

Finally, last week, Nike announced a new career program, GameOn , designed to expand and develop the talent pipeline of individuals who pursue careers in sports by providing meaningful work experience for all athletes, including those with disabilities. Athletes selected for the one-year program, which was created with support from the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Committee, will engage in a range of professional development to support their career goals at Nike’s World Headquarters in Beaverton, Oregon.

These efforts, launched or redoubled during the 2024 Games, demonstrate Nike’s commitment to creating an equitable and inclusive athletic landscape for individuals of all abilities, backgrounds and aspirations — now and for years to come.

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Google faces new antitrust trial after ruling declaring search engine a monopoly

ALEXANDRIA, Va. (AP) — One month after a judge declared Google's search engine an illegal monopoly, the tech giant faces another antitrust lawsuit that threatens to break up the company, this time over its advertising technology.

The Justice Department and a coalition of states contend that Google built and maintains a monopoly over the technology that matches online publishers to advertisers. Dominance over the software on both the buy side and the sell side of the transaction enables Google to keep as much as 36 cents on the dollar when it brokers sales between publishers and advertisers, the government contends in court papers.

Google says the government's case is based on an internet of yesteryear, when desktop computers ruled and internet users carefully typed precise World Wide Web addresses into URL fields. Advertisers now are more likely to turn to social media companies like TikTok or streaming TV services like Peacock to reach audiences.

In recent years, Google Networks, the division of the Mountain View, California-based tech giant that includes such services as AdSense and Google Ad Manager that are at the heart of the case, actually have seen declining revenue, from $31.7 billion in 2021 to $31.3 billion in 2023, according to the company's annual reports.

The trial over the alleged ad tech monopoly begins Monday in Alexandria, Virginia. It initially was going to be a jury trial, but Google maneuvered to force a bench trial , writing a check to the federal government for more than $2 million to moot the only claim brought by the government that required a jury.

The case will now be decided by U.S. District Judge Leonie Brinkema, who was appointed to the bench by former President Bill Clinton and is best known for high-profile terrorism trials including Sept. 11 defendant Zacarias Moussaoui. Brinkema, though, also has experience with highly technical civil trials, working in a courthouse that sees an outsize number of patent infringement cases.

The Virginia case comes on the heels of a major defeat for Google over its search engine. which generates the majority of the company's $307 billion in annual revenue. A judge in the District of Columbia declared the search engine a monopoly , maintained in part by tens of billions of dollars Google pays each year to companies like Apple to lock in Google as the default search engine presented to consumers when they buy iPhones and other gadgets.

In that case, the judge has not yet imposed any remedies. The government hasn't offered its proposed sanctions, though there could be close scrutiny over whether Google should be allowed to continue to make exclusivity deals that ensure its search engine is consumers' default option.

Peter Cohan, a professor of management practice at Babson College, said the Virginia case could potentially be more harmful to Google because the obvious remedy would be requiring it to sell off parts of its ad tech business that generate billions of dollars in annual revenue.

“Divestitures are definitely a possible remedy for this second case,” Cohan said “It could be potentially more significant than initially meets the eye.”

In the Virginia trial, the government's witnesses are expected to include executives from newspaper publishers including The New York Times Co. and Gannett, and online news sites that the government contends have faced particular harm from Google's practices.

“Google extracted extraordinary fees at the expense of the website publishers who make the open internet vibrant and valuable,” government lawyers wrote in court papers. “As publishers generate less money from selling their advertising inventory, publishers are pushed to put more ads on their websites, to put more content behind costly paywalls, or to cease business altogether.”

Google disputes that it charges excessive fees compared to its competitors. The company also asserts the integration of its technology on the buy side, sell side and in the middle assures ads and web pages load quickly and enhance security. And it says customers have options to work with outside ad exchanges.

Google says the government's case is improperly focused on display ads and banner ads that load on web pages accessed through a desktop computer and fails to take into account consumers' migration to mobile apps and the boom in ads placed on social media sites over the last 15 years.

The government's case “focuses on a limited type of advertising viewed on a narrow subset of websites when user attention migrated elsewhere years ago,” Google's lawyers write in a pretrial filing. “The last year users spent more time accessing websites on the ‘open web,’ rather than on social media, videos, or apps, was 2012.”

The trial, which is expected to last several weeks, is taking place in a courthouse that rigidly adheres to traditional practices, including a resistance to technology in the courtroom. Cellphones are banned from the courthouse, to the chagrin of a tech press corps accustomed at the District of Columbia trial to tweeting out live updates as they happen.

Even the lawyers, and there are many on both sides, are limited in their technology. At a pretrial hearing Wednesday, Google's lawyers made a plea to be allowed more than the two computers each side is permitted to have in the courtroom during trial. Brinkema rejected it.

“This is an old-fashioned courtroom,” she said.