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Introduction

The movement of people and goods from place to place is known as transportation. Together with communication—the movement of ideas—transportation has been essential in bringing about the integration of regions and nations into a single world community. Transportation movements, combined into various systems and networks, are by way of land, water, and air and by such means as automobile, airplane, railroad, ship, and pipeline.

The Need for Transportation

Transportation is needed because few economic resources—raw materials, fuels, food, manufactured goods—are located where they are wanted. Each region or place on Earth produces more than it consumes of some goods and services and less than it consumes of others. Through transportation, goods are moved from where there are surpluses to where there are shortages. Improved transportation has extended the areas in which various goods can be profitably marketed and thus has helped make the goods widely available.

The moving of people to places of work, education, and recreation and for their other needs and wants also requires transportation. Like goods, people are moved to where they are needed. But as decision makers people also travel to where they want to be. In recreational activities, such as pleasure driving, transportation can be an end in itself.

The demand for transportation is derived from the need for people and goods to be at a particular place. In satisfying this need, transportation gives people and goods greater value and place utility. Sometimes, as in the aging of wine or the ripening of bananas while they are en route to their destinations, goods may acquire greater form utility. The in-transit storage of goods provided by a vehicle may reduce the need for warehouse space at the destination. This is an example of time utility—getting goods to a destination at the time of their greatest usefulness.

The demand for transportation—and the rate of actual traffic flow—tends to be proportional to the population of the destination area. Traffic flow between two areas also depends on their proximity—flow generally tends to be greater the closer the areas are to each other.

The concentration of transportation services in heavily urbanized and industrialized areas is a result of the great amount of traffic. However, political or military considerations or prospects for future economic growth may lead to the construction of transportation facilities even where they are not profitable. Economic development in nonindustrialized countries, for example, commonly requires extensive investment in roads, airfields, harbors, and other transport facilities long before there is much traffic.

In industrialized countries such as the United States, transportation routes traditionally have been provided for in advance of other economic development. The Cumberland Road, for example, was built early in the 1800s to open the Ohio Valley to settlement. The Erie Canal, completed in 1825, helped settle the Great Lakes region. Federal land grants to railroad companies in the 19th century helped settle the West. In Canada roads and railroads were being extended to the north in the 1960s and 1970s to facilitate settlement and the exploitation of natural resources. In the long run, transporting goods from one place to another is justified only if the goods can be produced cheaply enough at the first place so as to offset the transportation cost to the second.

Transportation Modes

The various means, or modes, of transportation consist of both the specific types of vehicles used and the facilities needed for their movement. The modes include people walking and carrying loads, human-powered machines such as bicycles, draft animals pulling wagons and coaches, and pack animals; motor-powered highway vehicles such as trucks, buses, automobiles, taxis, and motorcycles; water carriers such as ships, barges, hydrofoils, and hovercraft; railroad trains; aircraft; and devices such as chutes, conveyor belts, pipelines, and electric lines.

Transportation modes can be classified by whether they are by land, water, or air; by how they are powered; by whether they use continuous flow or not; by whether they carry passengers or freight or both; and by whether or not they use fixed routes. Such distinctions are blurred somewhat by the fact that several modes are typically used for the entire movement of persons or goods from initial origin to final destination.

For example, a woman traveling from Chicago, Ill., to New York City may take a bus and a subway train to get to Chicago-O’Hare International Airport, where she can board an airplane for New York’s La Guardia Airport. At La Guardia she may reverse the process, riding buses and subway trains until she reaches her destination. For the trips to and from the airports she might instead have used an automobile or a taxicab. She might have traveled cross-country by automobile, bus, or train instead of by airplane.

A transport vehicle such as an automobile, an airplane, or an ordinary ship has both its motive power and its facilities for carrying goods or people in the same unit. In other cases, such as a train of railroad cars pulled by a locomotive, the barges pushed or pulled by a towboat, or the highway trailer pulled by a truck tractor, the motive power and the cargo or passengers are in separate units. When power and payload units are separate the power vehicle can be utilized elsewhere while the carrier vehicles are being loaded or unloaded or are in storage. Separation of units also permits changes in the number of carrier vehicles, as with a railroad train or a barge tow, as the volume of traffic varies.

The power for moving a vehicle may be furnished by a natural process such as wind or gravity. The power may be generated in an engine by the burning of fuel such as wood, charcoal, coal, gasoline, kerosine, or fuel oil. Power may also be furnished by an electric motor operated from batteries, an overhead wire or third rail, or a diesel engine such as in a diesel-electric locomotive. Diesel engines have increasingly replaced steam engines in maritime and railroad transportation and are also used in buses and trucks. Gasoline engines are used in automobiles and also in many buses and trucks. Turbines—both jet and propjet—have replaced engines using reciprocating pistons in most airline transportation.

Freight Transportation

Heavy or bulky goods and those of low value in proportion to their weight or bulk generally tend to be moved by transportation modes that use large vehicles such as ships and barges, which travel at slow speeds. Compact, perishable, and high-value goods tend to be moved by transportation modes that use small vehicles such as trucks and especially aircraft, which travel at high speeds.

Goods being transported can be classified into general cargo, or package freight, on the one hand and bulk cargo on the other. General cargo usually consists of merchandise, including manufactured items such as machinery, that has a high value in proportion to its weight or to the space it occupies in a vehicle. Bulk cargo generally consists of goods that are of low value in proportion to their weight or bulk. They include ores, grains, coal, oil, petroleum products, and other raw materials and fuels.

General cargo may be transported in boxes, crates, bales, barrels, and other containers. Because of the great variety of shapes, sizes, and weights of general cargo, its handling is less easily mechanized and requires a larger labor force than the handling of bulk cargo. Bulk goods can be conveniently taken on and off ships, railroad cars, trucks, barges, and other carriers by means of gravity, suction, conveyor belts, pipes, or other continuous-flow devices. When being loaded, bulk goods also are able to flow around obstructions in a vehicle and thus fully occupy the available cargo space. Most of the world’s shipping is designed primarily for the movement of bulk goods.

Bulk cargoes can be classified into dry bulk and liquid bulk. Dry bulk goods can be packaged, such as in bags or bales, but more commonly they are not. Sugar, for example, formerly handled only in bags, is increasingly being transported in bulk. Dry bulk goods often are moved in specially designed vessels. They frequently are handled in ships as “bottoming cargo,” to fill any last-minute unused capacity. In some cases dry bulk goods are moved by overland pipeline. Even some solids, such as coal and ores, can be moved through pipes in a liquid suspension, or slurry. Electricity is transported by power lines, a continuous-flow device.

Liquid bulk goods are transported either by continuous flow in pipelines or by tankers, barges, trucks, or railroad cars. Tankers account for about half the tonnage capacity of all oceangoing merchant ships. Their average size is much larger than that of any other type of ship. Some supertankers have capacities of more than 300,000 tons. The principal cargo carried by tankers is crude oil, the leading commodity in international trade ( see petroleum, “Transportation and Distribution of Oil” ).

Many small tankers, uncompetitive with supertankers for moving oil on the longer voyages, are used for moving grain. Some vessels, known as oilbulk-ore vessels (OBOs), carry oil in one direction and ore on the return voyages. There also are specialized tanker ships that carry such chemicals as heated liquid sulfur or extremely cold liquefied natural gas. Specialized railroad tank cars and highway trucks also are designed to carry chemicals and other products under controlled temperatures and pressures.

Freight transportation in the United States is dominated by railroads. They carry about 40 percent of the total volume, measured in ton-miles. Railroad freight traffic, while chiefly bulk, is the most diversified of any transportation mode. Motor truck traffic between cities in the United States has been increasing rapidly since the 1920s when it first became a significant mode of transportation. Trucking accounts for about 20 percent of total freight volume. But because trucks carry general merchandise with a high average value per ton, they account for more than half the revenues from all domestic freight. Even when cargo is moved between major terminals by rail, air, or water carriers, it is usually picked up and delivered by truck.

Inland waterways in the United States, including the Great Lakes, account for about 15 percent of the total freight volume. Traffic is almost entirely of bulk goods, chiefly iron ore, coal, petroleum, lumber, steel, grain, and chemicals. Powerful diesel towboats and barge tows on the rivers can carry about 40,000 tons of cargo each. Oil pipelines in the United States account for more than 20 percent of the total freight traffic. Pipeline transportation of crude oil and petroleum products has largely replaced coastal tanker and railroad tankcar transportation. Air cargo traffic, although increasing rapidly, accounts for less than one percent of the total. The goods carried tend to be perishable, compact, and valuable.

One of the most common methods of handling freight cargoes is stacking individual crates, boxes, and bales on wood or metal platforms known as pallets. Pallets are moved onto or off vehicles by forklift trucks, cranes, or various kinds of conveyors specially designed to transport pallets.

Cargo can also be stuffed into large, uniform-size metal containers. Such containers are placed in general-cargo ships, in specially designed container ships, and on barges. They can be carried “piggyback” by railroad trains as trailer-on-flatcar (TOFC) or as container-on-flatcar (COFC) cargo. In TOFC, truck semitrailers (with their wheel assemblies) are loaded; in COFC, containers (without wheels) are loaded. Truck semitrailers and containers are also placed on flatbed trailers hauled by highway truck tractors. The semitrailers and containers can easily be loaded aboard a ship or barge, either by large cranes or, in the case of vessels known as Ro-Ro (Roll-on Roll-off), by means of ramps. Some containers are carried on wide-bodied jet aircraft.

A large container ship, because of its greater size and speed and less time spent loading and unloading in port, can often replace four to six conventional general-cargo vessels and can move the cargo at much lower cost. Container ships were first built in large numbers in the late 1960s. As a result, many conventional ocean freighters were made obsolete, as were the port facilities that had been designed and located to handle their cargoes.

Containerization is not new. Ordinary trucks and railroad boxcars are forms of containers. But unlike modern containers, each may be loaded with a variety of merchandise that must be divided at a freight station and sent to several destinations. Such less-than-carload (LCL) traffic can be handled more efficiently by truck than by railroad because a truck can be driven directly to a destination area and provide door-to-door service.

Passenger Transportation

In metropolitan areas of the United States, movements of people between home and work account for about 40 percent of the total number of passenger journeys. Recreational trips account for about 15 percent of all trips in the typical urban area. Automobile riding, for example, is not only a means of reaching a destination but is a popular form of outdoor recreation. Recreational boating also is popular. Cruise ships have made up the major proportion of ocean-going passenger vessels since jet aircraft became the favored mode of transoceanic travel. ( See also travel and tourism .)

The automobile dominates intercity passenger transportation in the United States. It accounts for more than 80 percent of the total passenger miles. No other mode of transportation approaches the flexibility and convenience of the automobile, which provides door-to-door service independent of schedules.

The railroad is no longer a major means of intercity passenger transportation in the United States, though railroad passenger service thrives in much of the rest of the world. As recently as the early 1940s there were more than 20,000 daily intercity passenger trains in the United States. By the early 1970s there were only about 200. Whereas railroads accounted for almost 70 percent of the total passenger-miles by public carrier in 1930, by 1970 they accounted for less than one percent. In 1971 the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, a federal agency that is also known as Amtrak, took over most of the intercity railroad passenger service. Most Amtrak trains operate in the Northeast corridor between Boston, Mass.; New York City; Philadelphia, Pa.; Baltimore, Md.; and Washington, D.C. A large proportion of the New York-Washington service is by high-speed electric trains called Metroliners. There is suburban railroad passenger service in the metropolitan areas of such large cities as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, and San Francisco. Electric interurban railroads and street railways in cities have almost disappeared.

Intercity scheduled buses in the United States serve many more communities than do railroads. Using modern expressways, they provide swift service between major cities, though many communities not on expressways now have much less bus service than they formerly had. Air carriers dominate public intercity passenger transportation in the United States. The growth of air passenger traffic has been rapid, increasing from only 14 percent of the total in 1950 to more than 85 percent in the 1980s. Passenger travel by water carriers in the United States is insignificant except for some ferry services.

Carrier Organizations

There are several types of transportation carrier organizations. Common carriers offer their services to the general public at standard terms and rates. They usually operate over fixed routes and on regular schedules. In the United States all interstate common carriers are regulated by the federal government. Almost all railroads and intercity bus services are common carriers, as is much of intercity trucking, inland waterway barge traffic, and petroleum pipelines. All are regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) or by individual states. Almost all scheduled airlines in the United States are regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Shipping lines participate in international conferences, or cartels, which set the schedules and usually the rates charged for common carriers on most major ocean routes. They compete with nonconference lines, however, and face the possibility that large-scale users of ships might operate their own vessels if conference rates are too high. International scheduled airline services are operated by agreement with the affected countries. They are largely regulated by the International Air Transport Association (IATA).

Contract carriers carry people or goods by agreement with a limited number of shippers. They do not operate over fixed routes or on regular schedules. They include tramp ships, which operate under charter and mainly carry shiploads of bulk cargo rather than general cargo. Nonscheduled, or supplementary, airlines and the charter services of scheduled airlines also are examples of contract carriers, as are urban taxicabs and charter buses. Contract carriers carry a large share of the world’s ocean cargo.

Private carriers serve individual or corporate owners. They are not for hire to the public. Most automobiles in the United States are private carriers. Many companies operate their own truck fleets, and some of the largest shippers, especially petroleum companies, operate their own ships and barges.

Transportation Terminals

A transportation terminal is the place where goods and people are transferred from one carrier or mode to another. It is the place where vehicles are loaded and unloaded or where several vehicles are assembled into or separated from trains. Terminals are located where transportation routes intersect and where journeys or shipments begin or end. They include seaports, airports, railroad yards and depots, truck terminals, bus stations, and automobile parking lots.

Transportation terminals tend to be located within or close to a city’s downtown area. But the need for large tracts of land at relatively low cost often requires locations in outlying areas. For example, a 700-foot- (200-meter-) long berth for a container ship requires as much as 25 acres (10 hectares) of adjoining land for assembling and distributing cargoes by truck and rail. As a result, many port terminals, often located along congested downtown waterfronts, have been abandoned. Larger terminals have been established most commonly on the seaward edges of such large port cities as Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Modern commercial airports require even more space. Chicago-O’Hare International Airport, for example, covers ten square miles (25 square kilometers). Even larger are airports such as those for Dallas-Fort Worth, Tex.; Kansas City, Mo.; and Los Angeles, Calif. Airports also need unobstructed space for long distances past the ends of their runways. A modern railroad classification yard, in which trains are assembled and disassembled, may be as much as 1 / 2 by 5 miles (1 by 8 kilometers).

In many cases, the relocation of freight terminals has been due to the increased decentralization of the industrial and commercial establishments that are the sources and destinations of freight traffic. Decentralization is also a result of the improved access that modern highways have given to outlying areas. The traffic congestion, noise, and air and water pollution associated with transportation activities also make it desirable to locate terminals away from residential areas. As a side effect of decentralization, much of the land formerly needed by railroads and ports for central-city terminals has become available for nontransportation uses.

Passengers wait for the arrivals and departures of common and charter carriers at airport, railroad, and bus terminals. Amenities include ticket offices, waiting rooms, toilet facilities, and a variety of business establishments. In terminals handling international traffic, there are customs, immigration, public health, and quarantine facilities. In and near major railroad stations and airports there often are hotels.

Transportation Routes

A transportation route is the regular path that is followed by a movement of people or goods. Ideally it follows the shortest possible distance—a straight line, or what is known on the curving surface of the Earth as a great circle. But natural barriers, such as intervening landmasses on ocean routes, often block such direct paths. Inland waterways usually follow the winding courses of river valleys. Land routes bend to avoid steep slopes or to go around bodies of water. Air routes deviate from straight lines to avoid bad weather or to make use of tail winds. Transportation routes may also deviate from straight lines to tap intermediate sources of traffic or to avoid crossing specific political boundaries.

The world’s largest volume of ocean traffic is across the North Atlantic between the highly urbanized, industrialized, and densely populated regions of eastern North America and Western Europe. Branches of the North Atlantic sea route on the North American side lead to ports up the St. Lawrence River and on the Great Lakes and to ports on the East and Gulf coasts. On the European side one branch leads to and from ports in northern Europe; another passes through the Mediterranean Sea, leading to and from ports in southern and eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa. Mediterranean ports compete with those on the Atlantic and on the North and Baltic seas for the trade of the European interior, much as the Great Lakes, Gulf coast, and Atlantic ports compete for the trade of the North American interior. Through the Suez Canal the Mediterranean route connects with Indian Ocean routes to India, Japan, and other countries in southern and eastern Asia.

Another major sea route, through the Panama Canal, links the seaboards of Western Europe and eastern North America with the western coasts of North America and South America. Major routes also extend from the Panama Canal across the Pacific Ocean to Australia and New Zealand and to Japan and the eastern and southeastern coasts of Asia. Other transpacific routes directly link western North America and eastern Asia.

Another major world shipping route across the Atlantic links Western Europe with Brazil and eastern South America. A branch of this route that curves around southern Africa links Western Europe with ports in Africa and on the Indian Ocean, replacing the Suez Canal route. Another major route is that between the Persian Gulf and Japan.

The world pattern of air routes is similar to that of ocean routes, though an airplane can follow a more direct route than a ship can. The heaviest volume of international air traffic, like sea traffic, is across the North Atlantic between North America and Europe. There is also a great volume of air traffic between the various countries of Europe as well as on domestic flights within such major countries as Russia and the United States. The most heavily used airways in the United States are between Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.; New York City and Chicago; and Los Angeles and San Francisco.

Inland waterways are concentrated in the world’s heavily populated river basins and lowland plains. Among the busiest are the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Seaway and the Mississippi and Ohio rivers in North America, the Rhine River and other rivers and canals in northwestern Europe, and the system centering on the Volga and Don rivers in Eastern Europe. The United States has about 25,000 miles (40,200 kilometers) of inland waterway routes, including the Atlantic and Gulf intracoastal waterways. Land transportation routes are densest where urban commercial and industrial activities are the most extensively developed. Such core regions are in the central and eastern United States and southeastern Canada, in northwestern Europe, and in Japan. Other major transportation concentrations include the Pacific coast of North America, the Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo area of southern Brazil, the Ganges plain of northern India, the eastern areas of China, and south-eastern Australia.

The nets, or webs, of transportation routes are less densely developed in regions such as the interior western United States, the southern part of western Canada, Spain and Portugal, and southern Sweden and Norway. Some regions are served by railroads and highways that connect with transportation nets only at one end. Such transportation tentacles extend to otherwise isolated localities such as mining areas, logging camps, and other resource-extracting settlements. Examples are the rail lines and highways extending into northern Canada and into Siberia. Because of geography some sparsely settled regions such as the Amazon Basin of South America have few or no railroads and are served by inland waterways, air routes, and a few roads.

In the United States and Canada the transportation web is densest in the general area bounded by the Ohio and Potomac rivers on the south, the Missouri River on the west, and the St. Lawrence Valley. Several corridors within this densely populated, highly industrialized core region of North America generate extremely heavy movements of both goods and passengers. The most noted corridor is through the megalopolis stretching between Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C. Others are the axis between Detroit, Mich.; Cleveland, Ohio; and Pittsburgh, Pa.; the corridor from Chicago to Milwaukee, Wis.; and the corridor connecting Detroit; Toronto, Ont.; Montreal; and Quebec, Que.

In the southeastern United States, goods traffic very often moves to and from ocean and river ports. There also are major centers of passenger and freight traffic in the interior, such as at Atlanta, Ga.

In the interior of the western United States, transportation routes are spaced much farther apart, a reflection of the low population density. But on the heavily populated Pacific coast, a north-south corridor of closely spaced rail, highway, and air routes links San Diego, Calif.; Los Angeles; the San Francisco Bay area; and the Willamette Valley–Puget Sound–Strait of Georgia cities of Portland, Ore.; Tacoma and Seattle, Wash., in the United States and Vancouver, B.C., in Canada.

There were only about 172,900 miles (278,250 kilometers) of railroad routes in the United States in the late 1980s, as compared with about 254,000 miles (408,760 kilometers) in the peak year of 1916. Railroad mileage has steadily fallen as little-used branch lines have been abandoned in favor of highways. The United States has about 3.5 million miles (5.6 million kilometers) of surfaced roads. A network of pipelines links the Gulf coast and interior oil fields to the northeastern urban areas. Other major pipelines serve the Pacific coast.

All-water transportation routes via southern Africa, the Panama Canal, and the Suez Canal (before 1967) have faced increasing competition from land-sea combination routes that cross North America or Eurasia. Traffic from Japan to Europe, for example, may be routed first by ship across the Sea of Japan to Russia and then on the Trans-Siberian Railroad across Eurasia. Traffic from Japan to the eastern United States may be routed first by ship across the Pacific and then by rail or highway across the United States. Traffic from North America’s West coast to Europe may be routed first by rail or highway across to the East coast and then by ship across the Atlantic. Speedier transfer of cargoes between ships and overland carriers at the ports has greatly facilitated this choice of routings.

The world pattern of transportation routes changes slowly. The most important recent changes are a result of the growth of air transportation; the development of routes from new sources of fuels and metals in formerly isolated regions such as Labrador, northwestern Australia, and central Africa; the closing of the Suez Canal in 1956 and 1967; the opening of the enlarged St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959; and the opening of the Arkansas River to large-scale barge navigation in 1971. Transportation routes also have changed as supertankers, OBO vessels, container ships, and railroad piggyback service have been introduced.

Transportation Costs

Transportation costs depend primarily on distance and on the amount of goods or the number of people being carried. Reduced costs are generally achieved through the use of transportation modes that permit larger volumes or numbers to be moved. Savings are also realized by using as much as possible of the capacity of a particular mode or vehicle. For many movements of passengers and goods, however, the primary aim is not low cost but greater speed, convenience, or comfort. Such convenient modes as the private automobile or the taxicab, for example, are much costlier to use than a bus or train.

The cost of transportation includes both terminal costs and line-haul costs. Terminal costs are those incurred in assembling and distributing passengers and goods and loading them onto and unloading them from the vehicle. In the case of railroads they include the costs of making and breaking trains. The transfer from one mode to another, as between land and water carriers at a port, also is a terminal cost. Linehaul costs are those incurred in the actual movement of goods or people between terminals. They are generally proportional to distance, or length of haul (and fuel costs), and to time (and labor costs).

Another distinction is between fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs—also known as overhead, or constant, costs—include administration, sales, financing, insurance, rents, depreciation, and taxes. They are largely independent of particular transportation movements. Variable costs—also known as marginal, or out-of-pocket, costs—such as for fuel, are those attributed to a particular transportation movement and depend on actual traffic volume.

Costs are partly related to the load factor, the proportion of the capacity of the vehicle that actually carries the payload of cargo or passengers. If, for example, a 100-seat airplane carries 60 passengers, its load factor is 60 percent. Transportation operators try to achieve as high a load factor as possible by offering less frequent service during off-peak periods than during peak periods. In this way they can meet the increased demands of peak periods but not be saddled with unused capacity at other times.

Most rates and fares charged shippers and travelers fall between what are known as the value of service and the cost of service. The value of service is the maximum rate or fare that can be charged. If the charge is higher, transfer or substitution will take place—the traveler or shipper will find another transportation mode, another carrier of the same mode, another destination, another source of supply, another market, or cancel altogether.

If the carrier is a private enterprise, as are most transportation services in the United States, the total rates and fares charged must be sufficiently above the cost of service so as to give the carrier a profit. If traffic is carried at below cost, the loss must be made up by some form of public subsidy—that is, the government and the taxpayers share the transportation costs with the operators and the users. The desirability of a public subsidy is based on estimating whether the public benefit is great enough.

Early History of Transportation

Throughout most of human history, people’s movements on land were restricted to those speeds and distances that could be attained by walking. The use of sledges, pack animals, and then draft animals pulling wheeled vehicles increased the distance that early men could traverse and the amount of goods that they could transport ( see wheel ).

Long-distance transportation was mainly by water—on rivers and lakes, along seacoasts, and from island to island, usually in sight of land. Early vessels, propelled by currents and by paddles or poles, included rafts made of reeds or branches, boats made of skins, and dugout canoes. Later vessels used sails, which harnessed the wind. Extensive water commerce was carried on by the civilizations in ancient Phoenicia, around the Aegean Sea, and along the valleys of the Nile River in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Indus River (now in Pakistan), and the Yellow River in China.

Some of the earliest long-distance overland trade routes date from around 2000 bc . These were the trails along which amber was carried from near the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. Starting in the 6th century bc , the Persian rulers Cyrus and Darius built a road system in their empire. Around the end of the 4th century bc a road system was built in the Maurya Empire of India. Camel caravans carried silk from China to Europe on trails that perhaps predate the 4th century bc . By the 3rd century ad the road network of the Roman Empire had reached Britain, Gaul (modern France), and the eastern Mediterranean region.

During the Middle Ages, improved sailing vessels and the magnetic compass made open-sea voyages out of sight of land much safer ( see navigation ). Voyages of discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries greatly enlarged the world known to Europeans. An extensive sea trade developed, with merchant vessels carrying gold and silver from Latin America, tea and spices from Asia, and enslaved Black people captured from Africa.

Meanwhile, advances were being made in bridge and road construction, and the lock gate for canals was developed. Between the 16th and 18th centuries an extensive canal system was built in France. Transportation improvements in 18th-century Great Britain included the establishment of a turnpike (toll road) system and the use of iron for bridge construction. In 1815, John Loudon MacAdam first built a macadamized road, surfaced with compacted broken stone.

The American Indians did not have wheeled vehicles. Some tribes carried goods on an A-shaped drag called a travois. Indian trails often followed animal trails. For inland water transportation the Indians and later the European colonists used dugout, bark, or skin canoes ( see Indians, American ).

Late in the 18th century gravel roads were introduced in the United States. One of the first was a toll road, the Lancaster Turnpike in Pennsylvania. Plank roads and corduroy roads, made of lumber or logs laid side by side on the roadbed to overcome dust and mud, were built in the 1830s and 1840s. By the early 1800s transportation was being provided by animal-drawn Conestoga wagons and stagecoaches.

Flatboats were common on inland waterways. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 heralded a great era of canal building that linked the Atlantic seaboard with the lands west of the Appalachians. After 1818, packet ships regularly sailed across the Atlantic to Europe. In the mid-1800s, fast, efficient clipper ships were built to sail from Atlantic ports around South America to California and Asia.

Steam Power

The use of steam power to drive vehicles was applied as early as 1769 when a Frenchman, Nicolas Cugnot, demonstrated a steam carriage intended for use on common roads. It was in water transportation, however, that the early use of steam power was the most successful and enduring.

A short-lived steamboat service was begun by John Fitch on the Delaware River in 1790. In 1807 Robert Fulton established a successful steamboat line on the Hudson River ( see Fitch ; Fulton ). By the 1820s, steamboats plied the Great Lakes and the rivers of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. Along with the development of canals, their use greatly reduced shipping costs to and from the interior and helped open vast areas of North America to settlement. During that same time, steamships were introduced onto European sea routes. The first oceangoing steamship, the Savannah, crossed the Atlantic from Savannah, Ga., to Liverpool, England, in 1819, although it used sails for most of the voyage. By the 1840s, vessels were crossing the Atlantic entirely by steam power. In 1840 Samuel Cunard established the first regularly scheduled steamship line between England and North America. These early steamships were wooden and were propelled by side paddle wheels. They were primarily passenger and mail ships, since their cargo capacity was limited by the large space needed to carry coal for fuel on long ocean voyages.

With the adoption of the speedier screw propeller, the building of stronger iron-hulled vessels, and the establishment of coaling stations along their routes, ocean steamships by the 1890s had exceeded sailing ships in tonnage carried. Sailing ships soon were eliminated from long-distance ocean trade.

New, shorter ocean routes were established. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, enabled vessels to bypass the long voyage around Africa on routes between Europe and Asia. The Panama Canal, opened in 1914, bypassed the voyage around South America on routes between Atlantic and Pacific ports.

Growth of Railroads

Railroads were used in European mines as early as the mid-1500s. Men or animals pushed wagons loaded with ore along wooden tracks. Later, iron tracks were used and, with the advent of steam power, wagons were hauled by ropes connected to stationary engines. In Wales in 1804, Richard Trevithick demonstrated the first successful railroad steam locomotive. In 1825 the Stockton and Darlington railway near Newcastle, England, became the first common carrier to use steam locomotives.

In the United States the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the South Carolina Railroad began operation in 1830. Like the early roads, they were inland feeders to ports. Railroads spread rapidly in the eastern and southern United States, with short lines being merged to form through routes. By the mid-1850s, railways linked the Atlantic seaboard and the Midwest. In 1869 the first transcontinental route was completed to the Pacific coast.

Railroads became the dominent mode of overland transportation in the last half of the 19th century. Faster and more powerful locomotives and larger freight and passenger cars were built. Standardization of track gauges and the adoption of standard time zones aided efficiency. The invention of air brakes, automatic signaling, and the automatic coupler increased safety. Sleeping cars and dining cars increased passenger comfort and convenience ( see brake ; locomotive ).

In 1832 the horse-drawn tramcar on rails was adopted in New York City and in the following decades became widely accepted as an inexpensive form of public urban transportation. In the 1870s, steam-powered cable-drawn trams became popular. Beginning in 1863 in London, England, steam-powered underground railways (subways) were built ( see subway ).

Electric power was introduced to land transportation in the mid-1880s when electric street railways began operating in the United States, Canada, and Europe. By 1900 they had replaced horsecars and cable cars as the chief form of urban transportation. Electrified elevated or subway lines were built in several European cities and in Boston, Chicago, and New York City ( see street railway ) Electrification spread early in the 20th century to intercity railroad lines but later the diesel-electric locomotive became dominant in the United States ( see diesel engine ). By the 1950s, the automobile, bus, and airplane had replaced the railroad train as the principal passenger carriers in the United States. Trucks, waterways, and pipelines also competed increasingly with railroads in freight hauling.

The Automobile and the Air Age

Some of the first successful gasoline automobiles were developed in Germany by Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in the 1880s and in the United States by Charles E. and J. Frank Duryea in 1893. Although some early automobiles were powered by steam and electricity, the internal-combustion gasoline engine soon became the favored form of motive power.

The early farm-to-market roads in the countryside were rarely paved. By the 1890s, however, some roads near the cities were being paved in response to the growing popularity of bicycle riding. As the automobile came into common use in the 1900s, 1916 the Federal Aid Road Act provided for massive federal aid in highway construction. Limited-access express highways originated in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s with the building of the first Italian autostrada and German autobahn. One of the first expressways in the United States was the Pennsylvania Turnpike, opened in 1940. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 and later amendments provided for a network of 42,500 miles of interstate expressways to be completed by the mid-1970s.

The first successful manned, engine-powered flight in a heavier-than-air craft was achieved in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, N.C., by Orville and Wilbur Wright ( see Wright, Wilbur and Orville ). Airplanes were used in combat during World War I. Regular airmail routes began in the United States in 1918. During the 1920s and 1930s, mail planes commonly carried passengers. In the 1930s, scheduled flights were begun over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

The development during World War II of multiengine long-distance planes, aided by reliable electronic navigation and weather forecasting, led to the rapid advance of commercial air transportation. As a result, shipping lines rapidly declined as major passenger carriers.

With the introduction of jet power to commercial air service in the 1950s, speeds were doubled and costs were greatly reduced. Propeller planes were largely replaced on major transcontinental and trans-oceanic routes. The testing of supersonic jet transports began in Europe and the United States in the late 1960s. During that same time, jumbo jet aircraft, with capacities of nearly 500 passengers each, were brought into service.

Transportation Problems

The world’s transportation facilities are elaborate but unevenly developed. Many underindustrialized countries cannot afford the transportation services they need. At the same time, some highly industrialized countries are oversupplied. In the United States, for example, there are many miles of underused railroads, inland waterways, and rural roads.

Transportation movements are hampered by economic barriers such as tariffs and import and export quotas. Different railroad gauges on opposite sides of an international boundary often require a costly transfer of freight and passengers from one national railroad to another.

“Cargo preference” laws of some countries, restricting those vessels eligible to take particular cargoes, may impede the most economic operation of the world’s shipping fleets. The desire of many countries to have their own fleets of ships or to promote their own airlines may also divert traffic from the most efficient carriers.

Many countries regulate their transportation services so that the various modes are complementary rather than competitive. In the United States, however, government regulations vary widely from mode to mode and between those transportation movements that cross state boundaries and those that do not. A major step toward developing a unified national transportation policy was taken in 1966 with the creation of the Cabinet-level Department of Transportation.

Laws, customs, and labor agreements often require the employment of more persons than are needed for efficient transportation service, especially as technological advances such as container ships are introduced. But layoffs of unneeded workers may result in large-scale unemployment and create severe social problems. Similarly, the building of modern terminal facilities in certain ports and cities may so concentrate traffic that other, bypassed ports and cities face economic depression.

There often are costly and inconvenient delays when people and goods are transferred from one transportation mode to another. These delays include time spent by a traveler at a corner bus stop, at an airplane loading gate or baggage counter, or in the air while an airplane is waiting for clearance to land. They include the time spent by general cargo ships while in port being loaded or unloaded.

The building of expressways and tollways, with their wide rights-of-way and complex intersections, is very costly and has forced the relocation of hundreds of thousands of homes and businesses, particularly in cities. Entire neighborhoods have been destroyed. Many of the people displaced are from low-income areas in the inner cities and are those least able to find new homes.

Traffic congestion in the United States has been relieved somewhat as cities have decentralized and population and business densities have decreased. But rush-hour traffic jams and lack of parking space, especially in downtown areas, are still acute problems. Greater use of mass transit services is a likely solution. Unless mass transit is heavily subsidized, however, it can neither meet its costs from a fare structure that would be low enough nor provide service that would be frequent enough to induce people to leave their cars at home. Meanwhile, the decline of public transportation services has hit hardest at the poor, the elderly, the young, and the handicapped, who are least likely to have access to private automobiles.

Transportation facilities and operation also affect the quality of the environment. In an effort to reduce air pollution, laws in the United States set limits on automobile emissions. Such antipollution measures, however, may add to the expense of building and operating motor vehicles. Similarly, design changes required by laws limiting the noise levels and air pollution of aircraft may decrease the operating efficiency of the aircraft. The development of supersonic aircraft, in particular, has been opposed because of the loud sonic boom they create while in flight. Fear of pollution from massive oil leaks has affected plans for new pipelines and the building and operation of supertankers. Natural scenery may be marred and historical landmarks destroyed by construction for highways, railroads, and airports.

Transportation facilities also present a safety hazard. The private automobile, in particular, is one of the most dangerous modes of transportation, though accident rates are slowly being reduced. Major accidents on other transportation modes are relatively rare, though when they do occur, as in the crash of an airliner or in the collision of passenger trains, the loss of life may be great.

Advances in Transportation

Technological advances in transportation have included the development of superspeed trains, such as Japan’s “bullet train” of the 1960s and France’s TGV (Train de Grand Vitesse) of the 1970s and 1980s. These advances gave engineers the inspiration to design such experimental railroad systems as the magnetic levitation, or maglev, train, which by the early 1990s had only short test systems set up in Germany and Japan. Improvements in power generation and transmission and concern for the air and noise pollution caused by diesel engines have prompted automobile makers to develop cars that will run on alternative types of fuel. One result has been the prototype of an electric car. ( See also automobile ; railroad .)

A greater variety of ships, including submarine tankers and fast, multiple-hulled surface ships, have been developed. Other new types of vessels that are available include the hydrofoil, which travels on sea wings with its hull above water, and the surface-effect ship, or hovercraft, which rides above the water on a cushion of air.

The widespread use of atomic power for ship propulsion is a major research goal. STOL (short takeoff and landing), VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing), and supersonic aircraft have been adopted. These new technologies have made vehicles quieter. Passenger travel has improved in speed and comfort. Freight transport costs less because larger vehicles are used and operating efficiency has increased. The computer is used for record keeping, traffic control, navigation, and other routine operations.

In the more distant future, rocket transportation may become feasible, perhaps in combination with orbiting satellites, enabling all points on Earth to be connected in less than an hour’s travel time. Underground gravity vacuum tubes may permit freight and passengers to travel between stations thousands of miles apart also in less than an hour.

Improvements may be expected in transportation management techniques. Some forms of transportation now under private ownership, management, and operation will increasingly depend on public financing or control, just as urban mass transit now does. Some forms of transportation will be integrated into multimodal organizations, both public and private, in order to move people and goods with a minimum of cost, inconvenience, and delay.

The need for modes of transportation will endure. Innovative communications systems, however, have already made much travel unnecessary. Teleconferencing enables people to hold meetings and see each other without having to travel. Computer networking makes cooperative work possible, without the workers leaving home or office ( see telecommunication ).

Additional Reading

Ancona, George. Freighters: Cargo Ships and the People Who Work Them (Crowell Junior Books, 1985). Ardley, Neil. Air and Flight (Watts, 1984). Barner, Bob. Elevator Escalator Book: A Transportation Fact Book (Doubleday, 1990). Brandt, Keith. Transportation (Troll, 1985). Brown, Richard. One Hundred Words About Transportation (Harcourt, 1989). Gakken Company Limited Editors. Wheels and Wings (Time-Life, 1988). Kerrod, Robin and others. Land (Silver Burdett, 1984). Kerrod, Robin and others. Water (Silver Burdett, 1985). Little, Karen. Wings, Wheels and Water (EDC Publishers, 1988). Williams, Brenda and Williams, Brian. Wings, Wheels and Sails (Random, 1991). Arnold, James. All Drawn by Horses (David & Charles, 1985). Bulliet, Richard. The Camel and the Wheel (Columbia Univ. Press, 1990). Bushell, C.J. Jane’s Urban Transport Systems (Jane’s Information Corporation, 1990). Cain, Wilma. Story of Transportation (Gateway Press, Inc., 1988). Evans, A.N. The Automobile (Lerner, 1985). Fargo, O.J. Western Transportation (Green Valley World, 1990). Graham, Ian. Transportation (Watts, 1990). Lowe, Marcia. Alternatives to the Automobile (Worldwatch Institute, 1990). Nentl, J.A. Big Rigs (Crestwood, 1983). Norris, Ann. On the Go (Lothrop, 1990). Papageorgiou, M.N. Concise Encyclopedia of Traffic and Transportation Systems (Pergamon, 1991). Pollard, Michael. From Cycle to Spaceship: The Story of Transportation (FOF, 1987). Radford, Don. Looking at Flight (David & Charles, 1984). Schulz, Marjorie. Transport: Careers for Today (Watts, 1990). Stein, Barbara. Kids’ World Almanac of Transportation: Rockets, Planes, Trains, Cars, Boats, and Other Ways to Travel (Pharos Books, 1991). Wilkins, Frances. Transport and Travel from Nineteen Thirty to the Nineteen Eighty’s (David & Charles, 1985).

(See also bibliographies for Airplane ; Automobile .)

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Transportation and the Quality of Life

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Mass transit and qol ; Transport ; Transport mobility

Transportation (or just transport ) refers to people’s ability to travel and the amount and type of travel activity that occurs in an area.

Description

Transportation affects the quality of people’s lives in many ways:

Transportation is an essential activity that provides access services and activities, such as education, employment, shopping, and social events. The quality of transport options available affects people’s ability to participate in social and economic activities.

Active modes (walking and cycling and their variants such as travel by wheelchair and scooter) provide enjoyment and exercise, so the quality of walking and cycling conditions in a community can affect residents’ happiness and health.

Transportation costs can be a significant financial burden, particularly to lower-income households.

Transportation activities impose significant indirect and external costs, including traffic congestion, road...

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Dowling, R., Reinke, D., Flannery, A., Ryus, P., Vandehey, M., Petritsch, T., et al. (2008), Multimodal level of service analysis for urban streets , NCHRP Report 616. Transportation Research Board. Retrieved 6 April 2013 from http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=9470

Litman, T. (2009). Transportation cost and benefit analysis . Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Retrieved 6 April 2013 from www.vtpi.org/tca

Litman, T. (2010). Evaluating accessibility for transport planning . Victoria Transport Policy Institute ( www.vtpi.orga ). Retrieved 6 April 2013 from www.vtpi.org/access.pdf

Maibach, M., Schreyer, C., Sutter, D., van Essen, H. P., Boon, B. H., Smokers, R., et al. (2008). Handbook on estimation of external cost in the transport sector . Internalisation Measures and Policies for All External Cost of Transport (IMPACT). CE Delft, for the European Commission DG TREN. Retrieved 6 April 2013 from http://www.cer.be/uploads/media//2312_External_Costs_update_study_FINAL.pdf

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Todd, L. (2014). Transportation and the Quality of Life. In: Michalos, A.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_3053

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AP Biology 2.9 - Mechanisms of Transport

In this section, we’ll be looking at how all the different mechanisms of transport allow different types of organisms to live and function in the environment. This is section 2.9 of the AP Biology curriculum. We will start with a quick review of active transport, passive transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis. Then, we’ll see how it takes many different mechanisms of transport to complete the process of creating chemical energy in the form of ATP. After we look at this universal process, we’ll see how different organisms use carrier proteins, ion channels, uniporters, symporters, and antiporters to complete a variety of cellular tasks. Specifically, we’ll look at how different mechanisms of transport are at play in bacteria, eukaryotes, plants, fungi, and animals!

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ENDURING UNDERSTANDING ENE-2 Cells have membranes that allow them to establish and maintain internal environments that are different from their external environments.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ENE-2.J Describe the processes that allow ions and other molecules to move across membranes.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ENE-2.J.1 A variety of processes allow for the movement of ions and other molecules across membranes, including passive and active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

2.9 Mechanisms of Transport Overview

As if the basics of membrane transport weren’t complex enough, when you start to consider how organisms actually implement these strategies to maintain homeostasis and grow, the overall processes can get mind-boggling. For instance, did you know that a mushroom uses active transport, passive transport, exocytosis, and endocytosis to just to grow and reproduce? Or that a fish’s gills use ion channels, carrier proteins, and modes of active transport to help the fish regulate its water content? Even a plant, which may seem simple, uses all the different mechanisms of transport available. Understanding how these mechanisms of transport work together will definitely be on the AP Test. So, follow along with us as we cover everything you need to know about Mechanisms of Transport!

This section is all about how different mechanisms of transport work together to create living cells, tissues, organs, and organisms.

In previous sections, we covered the basics of cellular membranes and the integral membrane proteins that create the fluid mosaic model . Then, we looked into all the different types of membrane transport. We saw the uniporters, symporters, and antiporters of active transport, and we saw how diffusion, carrier proteins, and channel proteins contribute to passive transport. We even looked at some simple systems involving active and passive transport that work together to create ATP.

These complex processes are constantly active in organisms to help them react to changing environmental conditions. Let’s start with a short review of transport mechanisms and how they can work together.

This is going to be a very quick review of the different mechanisms of transport before we go into the complex processes of how these mechanisms work together to maintain homeostasis in different organisms. If any of these terms are completely unfamiliar or you are having trouble remembering these concepts, please review previous sections to get up to speed. Ready? Let’s go!

There are two basic types of transport that happen across the cell membrane.

Passive transport includes simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion – neither of which requires an input of energy. Small, uncharged molecules can move through the membrane easily via diffusion. The carrier proteins and protein channels of facilitated diffusion are needed for ions and larger molecules. Remember that passive transport always moves substances down their concentration gradient – from high to low.

By contrast, the methods of active transport require energy to move substances against their concentration gradients. Active transport can be primary when they are powered by the chemical energy stored in ATP, or they can be secondary if they are powered by the energy stored in an ion gradient. There are three types of active transport proteins: uniporters, symporters, and antiporters – all of which use energy in some form to pump a substance into an area of higher concentration.

Further, cells can import and export large amounts of substance through endocytosis and exocytosis ! Endocytosis can take in very large objects via phagocytosis, large amounts of a solution via pinocytosis, or even bulk import smaller substances via receptor-mediated endocytosis. With exocytosis, the opposite process takes place by merging vesicles with the cell membrane. Large amounts of a specific chemical or large structures can be expelled from the cell through exocytosis.

Both endocytosis and exocytosis rely on complex signaling within cells and the activation of the cytoskeleton to manipulate the cell membrane into forming vesicles that can be drawn into or expelled from the cell. Together, modes of passive and active transport can form systems within cells that complete incredibly complex tasks!

One of the most ubiquitous processes in life is the generation of Adenosine Tri-phosphate molecules . ATP stores energy in the bonds between phosphate groups. When ATP is used, one of the phosphate groups breaks off and the energy from the bond can be applied to a number of other processes. This leaves a molecule of Adenosine Di-Phosphate , which can become ATP if energy is used to add another phosphate group.

In all organisms, the process of creating ATP molecules uses both active and passive transport.

ATP synthase – the enzyme that adds phosphate groups to ADP – is an integral membrane protein that harvests the energy present in the passive transport of hydrogen ions.

For this to happen, a hydrogen ion gradient must be established. This gradient is created in the intermembrane space of chloroplasts and mitochondria, and in the periplasmic space between the two membranes present in bacteria. To establish a gradient like this, cells and organelles need forms of active transport – like a proton pump.

A proton pump is the simplest form of active transport that can create a gradient. This simple system is found in many bacteria and uses the energy created by the breakdown of glucose and other molecules. The enzymes that break down glucose put the energy into a number of electron carriers such as NADH, which can then transfer that energy to the proton pump. The proton pump then uses the energy to pump hydrogen ions (or protons) into the intermembrane space.

While chloroplasts and mitochondria increase the efficiency of this process to create more ATP, each of these systems is essentially just a proton pump used to power ATP synthase. Chloroplasts simply use this ATP energy to generate more stable glucose molecules that can be stored and transferred between cells, while mitochondria break down the stored glucose molecules to create ATP on demand for the rest of the cell!

Bacterial cells use a number of different mechanisms of transport to import and export substances from their cells. Since bacterial cells are already so small, they do this mostly through the use of integral membrane proteins using both active and passive forms of transport. For instance, we’ve already seen how bacterial cells can create ATP using these types of transport. However, bacterial cells use thousands of different protein channels to carry out the functions of life.

For example, bacteria need to gather nutrients and expel waste products in order to grow and reproduce. If bacteria live in a hypotonic environment, they may need to actively transport things like glucose, amino acids, and other molecular building blocks into the cell. But, even bacterial cells use active and passive transport for more than just collecting nutrients.

Consider the flagella – even this mobility structure is driven by interactions between active and passive transport systems. On the inner membrane of the bacteria are a number of active transport proteins that are constantly pumping protons into the intermembrane space. This builds up a gradient, which stores energy. Then, some of these hydrogens are allowed to passively move through the motor proteins. As they do so, they transfer energy to these motor proteins. The motor proteins transfer this energy in order to spin the flagella, allowing the cell to move!

When you get to the level of Eukaryotic cells , the only real difference between these cells and bacteria is the presence of the endomembrane system and organelles found in eukaryotes. The endomembrane system is really like a cell within a cell. Consider a simple food vacuole.

A food vacuole is formed through endocytosis. After the process of phagocytosis, the food vacuole is moved inside the cell. A lysosome merges with the food vacuole, and the contents are digested. While we often visual food vacuoles as simple lipid bilayers, they are in fact embedded with tons of integral membrane proteins. Some of these proteins allow ions and molecules in the food vacuole to pass out of the lysosome down their concentration gradient via passive transport. Other proteins use energy via active transport to actively move substances like amino acids and glucose out of the food vacuole and into the cell.

Remember that food vacuoles are just one small example of the many different active and passive transport processes that take place in a eukaryotic cell. They are also essential for creating ATP energy, maintaining the cell’s water balance, and many other processes!

Plants and fungi, while they are very different types of organisms, use the mechanisms of transport in similar ways.

Plants and fungi both operate on the principle of turgor pressure. This internal cell pressure pushes against the cell walls, creating a rigid structure for the organism. In order to create and maintain turgor pressure, plants and fungi have to maintain their cells at a lower water potential than the surrounding environment in order for water to continuously flow into the cell. Since water potential can be lowered by adding solutes, plants and fungi pack their vacuoles with ions and solutes using active transport. Then, using a series of aquaporins and passive transport, these cells allow water to flow easily into the vacuole from outside the cell.

The turgor pressure that is created allows plant roots and fungi mycelium to push through the soil, while it also allows above-ground growth for both plants and mushrooms! Turgor pressure provides the rigidity these organisms need, while other active and passive mechanisms of transport allow the cell to utilize energy, reproduce DNA and cells, and grow larger!

When we look at the mechanisms of transport in animals, the only big difference seen in animals is the lack of a cell wall. But, the cells must use many different forms of active and passive transport to maintain the overall organism through processes that involve multiple cell types.

Animals use nerves to transfer signals. First, the nerve signal hits passive, voltage-gated ion channels in the sending nerve. This causes vesicles full of neurotransmitters to merge with the cell membrane, dumping the neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic space via exocytosis. These neurotransmitters hit ligand-gated ion channels on the receiving proteins – causing them to open, cause an action potential, and send the signal through the receiving nerve.

An animal also needs to transport substances like oxygen and glucose to all the cells in its body. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are small, uncharged molecules that can easily diffuse through the cell membranes. But, larger, polar molecules like glucose need specific carrier proteins to carry them across the cells.

Animals also use complex patterns of active and passive transport in order to filter waste products out of their bodies. The nephrons in your kidneys are constantly manipulating water potential and ion concentrations in order to remove urea from your body and concentrate it into urine. In fact, the entire nephron is like a giant concentration gradient. Water and ions pass easily through the cell membranes in the Bowman’s capsule. As they descend into the Loop of Henle, they enter a much more concentrated region of the nephron. Cells in the downward Loop of Henle allow the passage of water, while cells in the ascending loop block the passage of water. This allows the urine to become very concentrated as it enters the collecting duct and heads toward the bladder.

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Transport n., plural: transports [tɹænzˈpɔɹt] Definition: the act of moving or translocating

Table of Contents

In biology, transport refers to the act or the means by which a molecule or ion is moved across the cell membrane or via the bloodstream . There are two types of transport in this regard: (1) passive transport and (2) active transport . Passive transport is a kind of transport by which ions or molecules move along a concentration gradient ; it means the movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

The four major types of passive transport are diffusion , facilitated diffusion , filtration , and osmosis . Active transport is a kind of transport wherein ions or molecules move against a concentration gradient . This means the movement is from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration . This type of transport requires expending cellular energy and the assistance of proteins (i.e. carrier protein ).

Transport Definition

In general, the term transport is the movement (of something) from one place to another. It can be used as an action word for carrying, moving, or conveying something from one location to another.

In biology, transport is the act or the means by which molecules, ions, or substrates are moved across a biological membrane, such as the plasma membrane. It may also pertain to electrons being transported along the electron transport chain .

At the cellular level, a concentration gradient is necessary for cellular transport to occur. A concentration gradient occurs when there is a concentration difference, for example, between the cell cytoplasm and extracellular fluid. Transport may then be along or against their respective concentration gradient.

Transport may also be used to pertain to the transport activity of blood and other bodily fluids in the circulatory system. Thus, the transport of biological substances may occur in intracellular and extracellular fluids.

Etymology:  The term transport came from Middle English, Old French transporter , meaning “to carry” or “convey across”. It is derived from the Latin transporto , from trans -, meaning “across” and porto , meaning “to carry”.

Cellular Transport

At the cellular level, transport may be classified as passive or active, simple or facilitated, intracellular or extracellular…

Passive and active transport

Biological transport at the cellular level may be passive or active . Both types need a concentration gradient to ensue. They differ though in the direction of the movement with respect to the concentration gradient. Passive transport is the transport of substances across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The movement is, therefore, along or in the same direction as the concentration gradient.

Conversely, active transport is a type of cellular transport where the movement is against or opposite the direction of the concentration gradient. A movement against the concentration or electrochemical gradient would indicate the need for energy.

The movement is from an area of low concentration to an area of greater concentration. Since the movement of substances in passive transport is downhill , kinetic energy is sufficient to drive the movement. In active transport, the movement is uphill and therefore needs a greater source of energy to power up the process. Typically, it uses chemical cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which the cell generates metabolically, such as through glycolysis and the citric acid cycle .

Simple vs. Facilitated diffusion

Fat-soluble molecules can move rather readily across the lipid-bilayer membrane (an example of unassisted diffusion or simple diffusion).

When diffusion makes use of transporters , it is referred to as facilitated diffusion.

The illustration below shows how passive transport occurs. Water-soluble molecules move down the concentration gradient across the membrane proteins. These membrane proteins may be in the form of channels or carriers.

Intracellular vs. extracellular transport

One of the major biological activities of a cell is the transport of biological molecules, ions, and substrates. The transport could occur inside the cell. For instance, the protein produced by the endoplasmic reticulum is transported or conveyed to the Golgi apparatus for further processing. This is an example of intracellular transport .

Transport could also occur from the cell to the outside, as in extracellular , such as that occurs during secretion, or from the outside into the cell. There are substances that can easily move through the lipid bilayer component of the plasma membrane. For example, small nonpolar molecules can move across the membrane.

Larger nonpolar molecules and polar molecules cannot enter or leave the cell because of their size and polarity, respectively. Nevertheless, they can still be moved across the membrane but they would need membrane proteins to shuttle or transport them across.

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. Its structure is key to its ability to transport molecules “selectively” into and outside the cell.

• Lipids , primarily phospholipids, form the double-layered structure of the plasma membrane. Phospholipids form the so-called phospholipid bilayer, which consists of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The “tails” of the phospholipids are oriented in a way that they lie internally while the “heads” are facing outward. The phospholipid tails are hydrophobic; the phospholipid heads are hydrophilic. Because of the hydrophobic lipid core orientation, lipid-soluble material will be able to pass through this phospholipid bilayer whereas polar molecules, such as water, will be prevented to pass through it. This feature of the plasma membrane makes the latter referred to as a ‘selectively permeable membrane’ — or, in some references, the semipermeable membrane separating the two sides, the inner and the outer of the cell.
• Proteins in the plasma membrane, as already pointed out above, are essential for the transport of certain molecules, especially those that cannot pass through the hydrophobic, nonpolar lipid component of the membrane layers. Based on location, proteins may be transmembrane proteins (spanning the membrane) or peripheral proteins (found at the periphery). They may also be referred to as channel formers or carriers, which is based on how they transport substances. Channel proteins facilitate diffusion via a ‘tunnel’; carriers facilitate diffusion by changing shapes to move substances across the membrane.
• Carbohydrates that are attached to the lipids or proteins are found outside the plasma membrane. They help the cell bind substances it will need from the extracellular fluid, especially for cell signaling and cell recognition.

Factors that Affect Diffusion 

Molecules diffuse where a concentration gradient exists at rates depending on factors, such as temperature, concentration, distance, and material…

• Molecules diffuse after at higher temperatures; slower at lower temperatures
• The greater the number of particles in a solution, the faster the diffusion
• The shorter the distance for the particles to travel, the faster the diffusion
• Smaller and lighter particles diffuse quicker than larger or heavier particles, which makes gases diffuse faster than liquids, and liquids diffuse faster than solids
• In biological membranes, another factor that affects transport is polarity. Nonpolar molecules tend to pass through more easily than polar molecules. Polar substances present problems when it comes to diffusing across the membrane. Polar molecules connect easily outside the cell but not by passing through the lipid bilayer. In such a case, they could use where a carrier or channel protein exists. And while uncharged organic molecules may be able to pass through the phospholipid layer,  charged molecules, albeit small, will not be able to pass as easily because of their charge. This is key to the plasma membrane’s capability in selectively transporting molecules.

Water Movement and Transport

Water is vital to any cell as it is the major solvent in a solution (the dissolved substance is referred to as the solute). In osmosis, water is thus the only component that moves passively, for that matter. Let’s take for instance the movement of water molecules in the red blood cells placed in three solutions:

When the cell is submerged in a hypotonic solution (where there is less solute and much water outside the cell), water tends to enter the cell resulting in the swelling of the cell. As more water molecules enter the cell, there will come a point where the cell will burst. But for single-celled organisms like protists , their cells are able to prevent it with their contractile vacuoles . The vesicle collects excess water and then pumps it out of the cell, thereby regulating water inside the cell.

As for plants, bursting is unlikely. The plant cell depends on the cell walls that prevent the cell from bursting when there is much water that went in the cell. However, in the event of exposure to a hypertonic solution (where there is much solute and less water outside the cell), much water will be transported out. The plant cell membrane detaches from the cell wall as the cytoplasm shrinks with water leaving the cell. The plant cells lose turgor pressure due to a lack of enough water that produces it. The plant eventually becomes visibly wilted (which can be restored by watering the plant soon enough).

Similarly, when the animals’ cells lose water, the cells tend to shrink leading to a condition called crenation . So think about marine animals, such as saltwater fish. How are they able to thrive despite the hypertonic environment? They excrete highly concentrated urine apart from secreting salt through gills.

In humans, this is identified as a case of dehydration. When the body’s cells lose water, the cells’ functions deteriorate or fail to function as they should. Good thing that there are specialized cells in the brain called osmoreceptors . These cells found in vertebrates are able to detect solute levels in the blood. When solutes are detected as atypically high, the body releases a hormone that will slow down water loss via the kidneys and regulates osmotic pressure through the release of albumin from the liver to the blood.

Conversely, when the cell is placed in an isotonic solution (where there is about the same water and solutes inside and out), there is no net change in water movements.

In plants, water transport inside and outside the plant cells is essential in keeping them upright. Plants tend to look wilted when it is not watered for quite some time because the amount of water that is lost is higher than the amount of water that is absorbed. Plant cells primarily use osmoregulation in ensuring they are “turgid”.

Watch this vid about plasma membranes, their structure and function:

Transport at the tissue level

At the tissue level, transport is the means by which substances are moved from the cell to the outside or other body parts. Blood is the circulating fluid in the body of higher animals, including humans. It transports various molecules, such as respiratory gases, (carbon dioxide and oxygen bound to hemoglobin of red blood cells), nutrients (e.g. glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids), metabolic byproducts for excretion, hormones, and other chemical signaling molecules, and nutrients.

In plants, the transport of substances at the tissue level occurs at the vascular tissues, particularly, phloem and xylem . The phloem tissues are responsible for the conduction of photosynthetic materials whereas the xylem tissues are the ones conducting water and nutrients from the roots to the different parts of the plant.

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Further reading, movement of molecules across cell membranes.

How High Sugar Level in Blood Damages the Blood Vessels

• TRANSPORT IN AND OUT OF CELLS. (2019). Retrieved from Estrellamountain.edu website: https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBooktransp.html
• MEMBRANE TRANSPORT. (2019). Retrieved from Yvcc.edu website: http://www2.yvcc.edu/Biology/109Modules/Modules/MembraneTransport/membranetransport.htm
• Active Transport Across Cell Membranes. (2019). Retrieved from Gsu.edu website: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/actran.html
• MEMBRANE TRANSPORT. (2013). Retrieved from Byui.edu website: https://content.byui.edu/file/a236934c-3c60-4fe9-90aa-d343b3e3a640/1/module5/readings/membrane-transport.html
• Biology, The Cell, Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes, Passive Transport . (2022). OERTX Repository. https://oertx.highered.texas.gov/courseware/lesson/1631/student/?task=7‌

© Biology Online. Content provided and moderated by Biology Online Editors

Last updated on November 13th, 2022

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transportation

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• NCpedia - History of Transportation
• Smithsonian National Museum of American History - America on the Move - Transportation
• Minnesota Libraries Publishing Project - American Environmental History - Transportation Revolution
• Engineering LibreTexts - Fundamentals of Transportation
• UNESCO-EOLSS - Transportation in the Twenty-First Century: Technological Innovation
• History Learning Site - Transport 1750 to 1900
• transportation - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• transportation - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

transportation , the movement of goods and persons from place to place and the various means by which such movement is accomplished. The growth of the ability—and the need—to transport large quantities of goods or numbers of people over long distances at high speeds in comfort and safety has been an index of civilization and in particular of technological progress.

Transportation is treated in a number of articles. For the major types of propulsion used in modern forms of transportation, see energy conversion . For forms of transportation for military applications, see military technology . For the engineering infrastructure on which transportation systems depend, see roads and highways ; bridge ; canals and inland waterways ; harbours and sea works ; lighthouse ; tunnels and underground excavations . For the place of transportation in law, see air law ; carriage of goods ; maritime law .

Active Transport & Co-transport ( AQA A Level Biology )

Revision note.

Biology & Environmental Systems and Societies

The Process of Active Transport & Co-transport

Active transport.

• Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
• Active transport requires carrier proteins (each carrier protein being specific for a particular type of molecule or ion)
• Although facilitated diffusion also uses carrier protein, active transport is different as it requires energy
• The energy is required to make the carrier protein change shape , allowing it to transfer the molecules or ions across the cell membrane
• The energy required is provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) produced during respiration. The ATP is hydrolysed to release energy

Active transport diagram

A carrier protein changing shape during active transport

• Reabsorption of useful molecules and ions into the blood after filtration into the kidney tubules
• Absorption of some products of digestion from the digestive tract
• Loading sugar from the photosynthesising cells of leaves into the phloem tissue for transport around the plant
• Loading inorganic ions from the soil into root hairs

Co-transport

• This means that two types of molecule are moved across the membrane at the same time; the movement of one is dependent on the movement of the other
• It involves a combination of facilitated diffusion and active transport
• The  active transport of sodium ions from the epithelial cell into the blood lowers the sodium ion concentration inside the cell and generates a sodium ion concentration gradient between the ileum and the epithelial cell
• Sodium ions move into the cell from the ileum by facilitated diffusion , carrying glucose molecules along with them via a cotransport protein
• The glucose concentration inside the epithelial cell increases, and glucose molecules enter the blood via facilitated diffusion
• Note that it can help to explain cotransport by beginning with the active part of the process (as above); this may seem a bit backwards, but active transport generates the concentration gradient needed for cotransport to occur, so this is a logical starting point

Cotransport of sodium and glucose diagram

Both facilitated diffusion and active transport occur during co-transport. Glucose molecules can only enter the epithelial cell when sodium ions are present.

Be careful not to get carrier proteins and channel proteins confused when answering questions on active transport. Active transport requires carrier proteins (transmembrane transport proteins that undergo conformational change) not channel proteins.

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Author: Alistair

Alistair graduated from Oxford University with a degree in Biological Sciences. He has taught GCSE/IGCSE Biology, as well as Biology and Environmental Systems & Societies for the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme. While teaching in Oxford, Alistair completed his MA Education as Head of Department for Environmental Systems & Societies. Alistair has continued to pursue his interests in ecology and environmental science, recently gaining an MSc in Wildlife Biology & Conservation with Edinburgh Napier University.

• Transportation In Human Beings

If you were amazed by the beautiful roads that transport cars and bikes, then take a moment to see within yourself. There is this amazing network of blood vessels inside your body that covers a distance of an astonishing 100,000 km. These are responsible for the transportation of human beings. Let us take a closer look.

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Circulatory System and its Components

In human beings, the various organs associated with this system include the heart, lungs, blood vessels, capillaries, and blood .  The heart is the pumping organ that squirts out blood. The heart does this with so much pressure that it is capable of squirting blood up to 9 meters high. It never stops and beats continuously so that blood can travel to all parts of the body.

Your blood travels through these blood vessels transporting oxygen, carbon dioxide, digested food, hormones and even waste products. It is amazing to see how transportation in human beings is carried out by the circulatory system , with the heart and the vast network of blood vessels.

Browse more Topics under Life Processes

• Nutrition in Plants
• Nutrition in Animals
• Respiration
• Transportation in Plants

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Blood is an important fluid connective tissue. It is mainly composed of plasma and blood cells. There are three types of blood cells, namely, red blood cells, white blood cells, and blood platelets. The RBCs have haemoglobin, an iron-containing complex protein.  The WBCs are the cells that help in fighting diseases and attack any foreign bodies in the blood. The blood platelets are the ones that help in clotting of blood.

In human beings, there is a phenomenon called double circulation that occurs, which is an efficient way. The heart pumps the blood, and through the various blood vessels, it travels to different organs and then comes back again to the heart. Now, this flow of blood in humans occurs in two pathways called the pulmonary pathway and the systemic pathway.

This system ensures that the deoxygenated blood (blood carrying carbon dioxide) from the right side of the heart goes to the lungs, where gaseous exchange occurs. Blood gets filled with oxygen from the lungs and carbon dioxide is given out to the lungs(from where it leaves the body). The oxygenated blood then travels from the left side of the heart to all other parts of the body.

The double circulation seen here ensures that there is no mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood. There is also an efficient supply of oxygen to the body cells and a greater rate of blood flow in the body.

How do the oxygenated blood and the deoxygenated blood not get mixed? Firstly, they travel in different blood vessels. Secondly, in the heart, there are four chambers. The blood without oxygen and the blood with oxygen flow into different chambers.

The human heart is a muscular organ, which has four chambers. The two upper chambers called the right atrium and the left atrium, and the two lower chambers called the right ventricle and left ventricle. The right atrium and the right ventricle together may be called the right heart. The left atrium with the left ventricle together can be called as the left heart.  All the chambers of the heart are separated by muscular walls called septum.

Read about the Excretion System in Humans, Plants and Animals .

Blood Vessels

Arteries and veins are the main blood vessels. These are interconnected by a network of smaller vessels called capillaries.  Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart whereas arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to different parts of the body.

Lymphatic system

In human beings and vertebrates, the lymphatic system acts as a subsystem of the circulatory system. It also has a role to play in the transportation in human beings. Lymph is a special fluid called the tissue fluid. It plays a role in the exchange process of nutrients and gases that occurs through blood. Any excess fluid remaining in the cells and tissues is collected by the lymph and is drained into the veins, which carry blood.

Read about the Transportation in Plants and Nutrition in Plants .

Solved Questions For You

Q: Write a short note on blood pressure in humans.

Ans: Blood pressure is an important vital sign of health. It is the force that blood applies on the walls of the blood vessels. It is expressed in terms of systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. The unit of measurement is mmHg. The normal blood pressure range is 120/80 mmHg.

FAQ’s for You

Q1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of these components? 

Answer:  The components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The function of the heart is to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body and receives deoxygenated blood from the various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Blood has three main functions: transport, protection, and regulation. Blood transports the following substances: Gases, namely oxygen between the lungs and rest of the body. Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body. The function of blood vessels is to transport blood throughout the body.

Q2. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Answer:  Oxygen and carbon dioxide in human beings are transported in various ways. The majority of oxygen, that is 97%, is transported as oxyhaemoglobin, a combined state of oxygen and haemolgoin. The remaining oxygen is present in the form of dissolved oxygen in blood plasma. The majority of carbon dioxide, that is about 70%, is transported in the form of bicarbonate in the blood plasma. This bicarbonate is involved in maintaining the pH of the blood. About 23% of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of carbminohaemoglobin, a combined state of carbon dioxide and haemoglobin. The remaining 7% is present in the form of dissolved carbon dioxide in plasma.

Q.3 Name the body structure concerned with the given functional activity: Combines with the oxygen in the lungs

Answer:  The Haemoglobin in the blood combines with the oxygen in the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin. The oxyhaemoglobin is then transferred to the different parts of the body. So, the correct answer is ‘haemoglobin’.

Q4. pH of human blood is

Answer:  pH is the measure of acidity or basicity of a substance, which ranges from 0 -14. Blood has a pH in the range of 7.35 to 7.45 making it slightly basic. Blood having a pH below than 7.35 is considered acidosis and above 7.45 is considered to be alkalosis.

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Unit 8: Membranes and transport

About this unit.

This unit is part of the Biology library. Browse videos, articles, and exercises by topic.

The plasma membrane

• Fluid mosaic model of cell membranes (Opens a modal)
• Structure of the plasma membrane (Opens a modal)

Diffusion and osmosis

• Diffusion - Introduction (Opens a modal)
• Concentration gradients (Opens a modal)
• Osmosis (Opens a modal)
• Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions (tonicity) (Opens a modal)
• Osmosis and tonicity (Opens a modal)
• Diffusion and osmosis (Opens a modal)
• Diffusion, osmosis, and tonicity Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!

Passive transport

• Passive transport and selective permeability (Opens a modal)
• Facilitated diffusion (Opens a modal)
• Diffusion and passive transport (Opens a modal)
• Passive transport Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!

Active transport

• Sodium potassium pump (Opens a modal)
• Electrochemical gradients and secondary active transport (Opens a modal)
• Uniporters, symporters and antiporters (Opens a modal)
• Active transport (Opens a modal)
• Active transport Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!

Bulk transport

• Endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis (Opens a modal)
• Exocytosis (Opens a modal)
• Bulk transport (Opens a modal)
• Bulk transport Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!

The Geography of Transport Systems

The spatial organization of transportation and mobility

1.1 – What is Transport Geography?

Author: dr. jean-paul rodrigue.

Transport geography is a sub-discipline of geography concerned with the mobility of people, freight, and information and its spatial organization. It includes attributes and constraints related to the origin, destination, extent, nature, and purpose of mobility.

1. The Purpose of Transportation

The unique purpose of transportation is to overcome space, which is shaped by human and physical  constraints such as distance, time, administrative divisions, and topography. Jointly, they confer friction to any movement, commonly known as the friction of distance (or friction of space). In an ideal world, transportation would come at no effort in terms of cost and time with unlimited capacity and spatial reach. Under such circumstances, geography would not matter. However, geography can be a significant constraint to transport in the real world since it trades space for time and money and can only be partially circumscribed. The extent to which this is done has a cost that varies significantly according to factors such as the length of the trip, the capacity of modes and infrastructures, and the nature of what is being transported. From the mobility of a person using an automobile or a public transit system to commute to their place of work to the mobility of cargo being shipped across the Pacific as part of an international trade transaction; both are bound to a similar set of constraints.

Transport geography can be understood from a series of eight core principles :

• Transportation is the spatial linking of derived demand .
• Distance is a  relative concept involving space, time, and effort.
• Space is concomitantly the generator, support, and constraint for mobility.
• The relation between space and time can converge or diverge .
• A location can be central , generating and attracting traffic, or an intermediate element where traffic transits.
• To overcome geography, transportation requires a footprint .
• Transportation seeks massification but is constrained by atomization .
• Velocity is a modal, intermodal, and managerial effort.

These principles underline that there would be no transportation without geography and no geography without transportation. Thus, the goal of transportation is to transform the geographical attributes of freight, passengers, or information, from an origin to a destination, conferring them an added value in the process. There are substantial operational differences between transportation modes, particularly between passengers and freight, which are often operated separately. The convenience at which this can be done varies considerably and is commonly labeled as mobility.

Mobility . The ease of a movement of a passenger or a unit of freight related to their costs as well as to the attributes of what is being transported (fragility, perishable, price). Political factors such as laws, regulations, borders, and tariffs can also influence mobility. When mobility is high, activities are less constrained by distance.

Transportation is not necessarily a science but a  field of application, borrowing concepts and methods from a wide variety of disciplines. The specific purpose of transportation is to fulfill a demand for mobility since transportation can only exist if it moves passengers, freight, and information around. Otherwise, it has no purpose. This is because transportation is dominantly the outcome of a derived demand ; it occurs because other activities are taking place. Distance, a core attribute of transportation, can be represented in a variety of ways , ranging from a simple Euclidean distance – a straight line between two locations – to what can be called logistical distance; the complete set of required tasks so that distance can be overcome.

Thus, mobility must consider its geographical setting , which is linked to spatial flows and their patterns. The concept of flow has four major components:

• Geographical . Each flow has an origin, a destination, and a degree of separation. Flows with high degrees of separation tend to be more limited than flows with low separation degrees.
• Physical . Each flow involves specific physical characteristics in terms of possible load units and the conditions in which they can be carried. Depending on the transportation mode, flows can be  atomized (smallest load unit) or massified (moving load units in batches).
• Transactional . The realization of each flow has to be negotiated with providers of transport services, such as booking a slot on a containership or an air travel seat. A flow is commonly related to a monetary exchange between a provider of transportation services and the user.
• Distribution . Flows are organized in sequences, where the most complex involve different modes and terminals. Many transport flows are scheduled and routed to minimize costs or maximize efficiency, often through intermediary locations.

Urbanization, multinational corporations, and economic globalization are forces shaping and taking advantage of transportation at different but often related scales . Consequently, the fundamental purpose of transport is geographic because it facilitates movements between other locations . Transport plays a role in the structure and organization of space and territories, which may vary according to the level of development. In the 19th century, the purpose of the emerging modern forms of transportation, mainly railways and maritime shipping, was to expand spatial coverage by creating, expanding, and consolidating national markets.

In the 20th century, the objective shifted to selecting itineraries, prioritizing transport modes, increasing the capacity of existing networks, and responding to mobility needs, and this at an increasingly global scale, with its own space of flows. In the 21st century, transportation must cope with a globally oriented economic system in a timely, cost-effective, and sustainable manner, accounting for local problems such as congestion and capacity constraints.

2. The Importance of Transportation

Transport represents one of the most essential human activities worldwide as it allows us to mitigate the constraint of geography. It is an indispensable component of the economy and plays a major role in supporting spatial relations between locations. Transport creates links between regions and economic activities, between people and the rest of the world, generating value. It is composed of core components , which are the modes, infrastructures, networks, and flows . These components are fundamental for transportation, but they also underline that geography remains a salient force shaping transportation despite significant technological, social, and economic changes.

Transport is a multidimensional activity whose importance is:

• Historical . Transport modes have played different historical roles in the rise of civilizations (Egypt, Rome , and China ), their trading networks, the development of societies, and national defense. The evolution of transportation technology is intricately linked with historical changes and socioeconomic transformations. As such, transportation offers a valuable perspective on understanding historical processes at any scale, from the community to the nation.
• Economic . The evolution of transport has been linked to economic development. It is an industry in its own right, such as car manufacturing, air transport companies, or railways. The transport sector is also an economic factor in producing goods and services. It contributes to the added value of economic activities, facilitates economies of scale, and influences land (real estate) value and the specialization of regions. Transport is a factor shaping economic activities and is also shaped by them, underlining their reciprocity through multiplier effects.
• Social . Transport modes facilitate access to healthcare, welfare, and cultural events, thus performing a social service. They shape social interactions by favoring or inhibiting the mobility of people. Higher mobility implies the potential for extended social interactions. Transportation thus supports and may even shape the cohesion of social structures.
• Political . Governments play a critical role in transport as sources of transport investments and as regulators of transport operations. The political role of transportation is undeniable as governments often subsidize the mobility of their populations, such as providing highways and public transit. While most transport demand relates to economic imperatives, many transport infrastructures have been constructed for political reasons such as national accessibility or job creation. Transport governance thus impacts nation-building and national unity but is also a tool for shaping policy.
• Environmental . Despite the apparent advantages of transport, its environmental impacts are also significant. They include negative impacts on air and water quality, noise levels, and public health. All decisions relating to transport need to be evaluated, considering the corresponding environmental costs and how they can be mitigated. Transportation is, therefore, a dominant factor in contemporary environmental externalities , including sustainability and decarbonization.

Transportation as a multidisciplinary endeavor can be approached through several  fields of inquiry , where some are at the core of transport geography, such as transport demand, nodes, and networks. In contrast, others are more peripheral, such as natural resources, political geography, and regional geography. Yet, they all contribute to the understanding of transport activities and their impacts on the economy, society, and the environment.

Substantial empirical evidence underlines that the importance of transportation is growing , particularly in light of the following contemporary trends:

• Growth of the demand . The second half of the 20th century has seen considerable growth in the transport demand related to individuals (passengers) as well as freight mobility. This growth is jointly the result of more passengers and freight being moved, including the longer distances over which they are carried. Recent trends underline an ongoing process of mobility growth, which has led to the multiplication of the number of journeys involving various modes that service transport demand.
• Reduction of costs . Even if several transportation modes are costly to own and operate, such as ships and planes, costs per unit transported have dropped significantly over the last decades. This is particularly the case for transportation services subject to competitive pressures. Lower transportation costs made it possible to overcome more considerable distances and further exploit the comparative advantages of space. As a result, despite the lower costs, the share of transport activities in the economy has remained relatively constant over time. More transportation services are used, but their costs are declining.
• Expansion of infrastructures . The above two trends have extended the demand for transport infrastructures quantitatively and qualitatively. Roads , rails , harbors, airports, telecommunication facilities, and pipelines have expanded considerably to service new areas and add capacity to existing networks. Transportation infrastructures are thus a major component of land use.

Facing these contemporary trends, an important part of the  spatial differentiation of the economy is related to where resources (raw materials, capital, people, information, etc.) are located and how well they can be distributed. Transport routes are established to distribute resources between places where they are abundant and places where they are scarce, but only if the costs are lower than the benefits. Consequently, transportation has an important role in the conditions that affect global, national, and regional economies. It is a strategic infrastructure so embedded in the socioeconomic life of individuals, institutions, and corporations that it is often invisible to the consumer but always part of all economic and social functions. This is paradoxical since the perceived invisibility of transportation is derived from its efficiency . If transport is disrupted or ceases to operate, the consequences can be dramatic, such as workers being unable to reach their workplace, parts not being delivered to factories, and goods not available at stores or through e-commerce.

3. Transportation in Geography

Features such as resources, populations, and economic activities are not randomly distributed around the world ; there are logic, order, and hierarchy to spatial distribution. Geography seeks to understand the spatial order of things as well as their interactions, particularly when this spatial order is less evident. Transportation, being one element of this spatial order, is, at the same time, influenced by geography as well as influencing it. For instance, the path followed by a road is influenced by regional economic and physical attributes, but once constructed, the same road will shape future regional developments.

Transportation is of relevance to geography for two main reasons. First, transport infrastructures, terminals, modes, and networks occupy an important place in space and constitute the basis of a complex spatial system . Second, since geography seeks to explain spatial relationships, transport networks are of specific interest because they are the main physical support of these interactions .

As a discipline, transport geography emerged as a branch of economic geography in the second half of the 20th century. In earlier considerations, particularly from a commercial geography perspective (late 19th and early 20th century), transportation was an important factor behind spatial economic representations of space, namely in terms of the location of economic activities and the monetary costs of distance. These cost considerations became the foundation of several geographical theories, such as central places and location analysis (see  transportation and space ). The growing mobility of passengers and freight justified the emergence of transport geography as a specialized and independent field of investigation.

In the 1960s, transport costs were formalized as key factors in location theories, and transport geography began to rely increasingly on quantitative methods , particularly over a network and spatial interaction analysis. This was accompanied by a growing use of visual tools , beginning with conventional maps but also with graphs and figures. Abstract concepts, such as distance-decay, could be visualized. However, from the 1970s, technical, political, and economic changes challenged the centrality of transportation in many geographical and regional development investigations. The spatial anchoring effect of high transportation costs receded, and decentralization became a dominant paradigm observed within cities (suburbanization) and regions. The spatial theory foundations of transport geography, particularly the friction of distance, became less relevant or evident in explaining socioeconomic processes. As a result, transportation became underrepresented in economic geography in the 1970s and 1980s, even if the mobility of people and freight and low transport costs were considered important factors behind the globalization of trade and production. Further, the lack of computational power and the limited data availability undermined the applicability of transportation models developed so far. There was an abundance of models and concepts but limited empirical evidence and capabilities to support them.

Since the 1990s, transport geography has received renewed attention with new realms of investigation:

• The massive diffusion of analytical software, such as spreadsheets, statistical analysis, graphic design, and Geographic Information Systems , allowed transportation researchers and planners to undertake work prior only available to large and well-funded agencies. Further, the Internet allowed access to large public and private databases, expanding opportunities.
• This is a multi-scalar effect in which mobility, production, and distribution become interrelated in a complex geographical setting, and the local, regional, and global boundaries become increasingly blurred through the development of new passenger and freight transport systems.
• Rapid urbanization , particularly in developing economies, underlined the challenges of transport infrastructure investment for private as well as collective uses. For instance, suburbanization resulted in an array of challenges related to congestion and automobile dependency.
• Globalization supported the development of complex air and maritime transportation networks, supporting global supply chains and trade relations across long distances.
• The role of information and communication technologies was also being felt, often as a support or as an alternative to mobility. More importantly, the rise of e-commerce is changing the retailing and distribution landscape with the growth of home deliveries.

All the above are linked with new and expanded mobilities of passengers and freight and, as such, new realms of investigation for transport geography.

4. Transportation Systems

Transport geography is based on the premise that transportation is a system supporting complex relationships articulated by three central concepts :

• Transportation nodes . Transportation primarily links locations, often characterized as nodes. They serve as access points to a distribution system or intermediary locations within a transport network. This function is mainly serviced by transport terminals where flows originate, end, or are being transshipped from one mode to another. Transport geography must consider its places of convergence and transshipment.
• Transportation networks . It considers the spatial structure and organization of transport infrastructures and terminals. Transport geography must include in its investigation the structures (routes and infrastructures) supporting and shaping movements.
• Transportation demand . It considers the demand for transport services as well as the modes used to support movements. Once this demand is realized, it becomes an interaction that flows through a transport network. Transport geography must evaluate the factors affecting its derived demand function.

Analyzing these concepts within transport geography relies on methodologies often developed by other disciplines, such as economics, mathematics, planning, and demography. For instance, the spatial structure of transportation networks can be analyzed with graph theory , which was initially developed for mathematics. Further, many models developed to analyze movements, such as the  gravity model , were borrowed from physical sciences. Multidisciplinarity is consequently an important attribute of transport geography, as in geography in general, as each discipline provides a different dimension to transport geography . Transport geography must be systematic as one element of the transport system is linked with numerous others; transport systems are  complex systems .

The role of transport geography is to understand the spatial relations produced by transport systems. This can give rise to several transportation fallacies regarding the relations between access, accessibility, distance, and time. A better understanding of spatial relations is essential to assist private and public actors involved in transportation in mitigating key  transport problems , such as capacity limits, transfer between different systems, the reliability of mobility, and the integration of transport systems. There are three basic geographical considerations relevant to transport systems:

• Location . As all activities are located somewhere, each location has characteristics conferring a potential supply and demand for resources, products, services, or labor. A location will determine the nature, origin, destination, distance, and even the possibility of a movement to be realized. For instance, a city provides employment in various sectors of activity in addition to consuming resources.
• Complementarity . Some locations have a surplus of labor, resources, parts, or final goods, while others have a deficit. The only way an equilibrium can be reached is by mobility between locations with supply (or a surplus) and with demands. For instance, a complementarity is created between a store (supply of goods) and its customers (demand for goods).
• Scale . Movements generated by complementarity occur at different scales, depending on the nature of the activity. Scale illustrates how transportation systems are established over local, regional, and global geographies. For instance, home-to-work journeys generally have a local or regional scale. At the same time, the distribution network of a multinational corporation is most likely to cover several regions of the world.

Consequently, transport systems have a footprint and support the relationships between locations on an increasingly global scale. Over this, transport geography provides a multidisciplinary perspective to understand the complexity of transportation and how space supports and hinders mobility.

5. Prospects for Transport Geography

Transport geography played a relatively small role in the field of transport studies, a field that has been dominated by engineers and economists. This was due in part to the needs of the industry focused on providing infrastructures and technologies, at what cost and benefits, and at what level of pricing. The contemporary industry is much more complex, with issues as varied as safety, aesthetics, working conditions, the environment, and governance being necessary considerations. Therefore, a much broader set of skills is required, and transport studies have become a multidisciplinary field of application to which transport geography has opportunities to contribute because of the breadth of the approach and training. Still, transport geography, like transportation in general, does not receive a level of attention proportional to its economic, environmental, and social importance.

It is also fundamental to underline that transport is a spatial activity . It has always been a space-adjusting service but has become increasingly global. Contemporary transport operates at a broader range of scales than ever before, from local home deliveries to global air transport networks. Further, there are complex interactions between the local and the global. For example, the issues surrounding the expansion of an airport are usually decided at the local level. The impacts are likely to be felt locally, namely its externalities such as noise and congestion. However, the effects on passenger and freight flows may have global ramifications. The spatiality of transport and the many scales at which it operates are elements concerning transport geography. No other discipline has as its core interest the role of space in shaping human activities. The globalization of transport activities has represented unique opportunities in developing transport geography.

One reason for the success of engineers and economists in transport studies and applications is that their training has been rigorous in applying mathematics and multivariate statistics. They have demonstrated the ability to provide precise answers to the questions that decision-makers have required – what to build, at what cost, and with what cost effects. This underlines a dominant perspective in the transport industry: it is of little value unless a process can be quantified, particularly from a cost-benefit perspective. Transport geography provides quantitative skills in modeling, graph theory, and multivariate statistics. However, newer techniques provide geographers with opportunities to contribute to transport studies. Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T) has become essential to transport geography education and research. The multi-scalar, multivariate nature of the transport industry makes GIS-T an invaluable tool that raises the profile of transport geography in the transportation industry.

One of the key challenges in transport studies is data availability . Frequently, census and survey data are inadequate or unavailable in the required form. However, the online availability of large datasets is increasing, offering a richer array of information to analyze transport issues in a wide variety of modes and geographies. New opportunities also arise from what came to be known as “ big data “, where a large amount of digital information is made available at a low cost through mobile devices, sensors, remote sensing, and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID). Mobility can now be observed at an unprecedented scale and level of detail, where passengers, vehicles, and cargo can be tracked.

Knowledge of survey techniques and their limitations is also important to the transport geography toolkit. Irrespective of the appeal of information technologies, many of the traditional tools and approaches are still relevant. They allow addressing problems that other disciplines frequently overlook because of the lack of data or the inability to represent this data spatially. Questionnaires and interviews represent a vital source of information in many situations. Content analysis is instrumental in providing quantified data from non-quantified sources, a process that recent advances in artificial intelligence have greatly facilitated. By scanning the contents of massive quantities of text documents, algorithms have the capability to extract meaning and relations between concepts, a benefit that is becoming apparent. At the same time, fieldwork offers the opportunity to understand the particularities of the local conditions that cannot be obtained otherwise. Data, methods, and models are not palliative to common sense, which remains a constant challenge when the approach focuses more on the tools than the reality in which transportation is evolving. The following sections will focus on the numerous dimensions of this reality, beginning with the relationship between transportation and the physical environment .

Related Topics

• 1.2 – Tr ansportation and The Physical Environment
• 1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography
• A. Methods in Transport Geography
• B.1 – Teaching Transport Geography
• 10. Issues and Challenges in Transport Geography

Bibliography

• Banister, D. (2002) Transport Planning. 2nd ed. London: Spon Press.
• Barr, S., J. Prillwitz, T. Ryley and G. Shaw (2017) Geographies of Transport and Mobility: Prospects and Challenges in an Age of Climate Change, London: Routledge.
• Birtchnell, T., S. Savitzky and J. Urry (2015) Cargomobilities: Moving Materials in a Global Age. New York: Routledge.
• Black, W. (2003) Transportation: A Geographical Analysis. New York: Guilford.
• Button, K.B., H. Vega and P. Nijkamp (2010) A Dictionary of Transport Analysis, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
• Cidell, J. (2021) An Introduction to Transport Geography: Transport, Mobility and Place, Lanham (MD): Rowman & Littlefield.
• Goetz, A.R., T.M. Vowles, T.M. and S. Tierney (2009) “Bridging the Qualitative-Quantitative Divide in Transport Geography”, The Professional Geographer, 61(3), pp. 323-335.
• Haggett, P. (2001) Geography: A Modern Synthesis, 4th Edition, New York: Prentice Hall.
• Hoyle, B. and R. Knowles (eds) (1998), Modern Transport Geography, Second Edition, London: Wiley.
• Keeling, D.J. (2007) “Transportation Geography: New Directions on Well-Worn Trails”, Progress in Human Geography, 31(2), 217-225.
• Keeling, D.J. (2008) “Transportation Geography – New Regional Mobilities”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 275-283.
• Knowles, R., J. Shaw and I. Docherty (eds) (2008) Transport Geographies: Mobilities, Flows and Spaces, Malden, MA: Blackwell.
• Merlin, P. (1992) Géographie des Transports, Que sais-je?, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Rimmer, P. (1985) “Transport Geography”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 10, pp. 271-277.
• Rodrigue, J-P, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (2013) (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage.
• Shaw, J. and J.D. Sidaway (2011) “Making links: On (re)engaging with transport and transport geography”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 502-520.
• Sultana, S. and J. Weber (eds) (2017) Minicars, Maglevs, and Mopeds: Modern Modes of Transportation around the World, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
• Schiller, P.L., and J.R. Kenworthy (2018) An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation, New York: Routledge.
• Taaffe, E.J., H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1996) Geography of Transportation, Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Tolley, R. and B. Turton (1995) Transport Systems, Policy and Planning: A Geographical Approach, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex: Longman.
• White H.P. and M.L. Senior (1983) Transport Geography. New York: Longman.

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Means Of Transport For Kids – Land, Air and Water Transportation

What Is Transport?

What are the different modes of transportation.

• Activities That Will Help Your Child Learn About Modes Of Transport

Interesting Facts About Modes Of Transport For Kids

Writing an essay on a topic can be met with a lot of excitement if your child knows about the subject, or can be met with some trepidation if they are uncertain about a topic they need to think of before writing. Certain topics are easy to understand and write about, for example, what we plan to cover in this article – modes of transportation for kindergarten children and some examples of transport names in English. Now transportation is a topic that every child would love to know more about – they see cars, trucks, cycles, bikes, boats and even aeroplanes around them, so they do know what each type of transport does, but there’s a lot to discover about transportation besides them just being modes to ferry you from one point to another. In this article, we cover the different modes of transport in English, and delve a little deeper into facts about them as well.

Land, water or air! The meaning of transportation or the means of transport meaning is basically the way to move from one place to another. Buses, boats, trains and aeroplanes are the most common means of transport that children have heard of, which can help people move from one part of the world to another. Learning about all these modes of transportation is one of the first things children can do when they start communicating with their families. 

When you want to get into transportation for kids at a personal level, you can start with how they were carried as babies in your arms, then, on a stroller to move around in lanes and streets near home, and then, in cars to travel in the city so so on. Also talk to them about how, when the time is right, they get to ride a tricycle or cycle to explore the area around them, and yes, this is a means of transport! This will help them understand the types of transportation and talk and slowly write about this naturally, through their own experiences.

There’s one more thing that little ones can learn thanks to transportation – verbs! Words like ‘going’ ‘cycling’ ‘riding’ are what will help kids understand the concept of transportation so much better, and these words, that act as connectors, will also teach them more about the English language.

Depending on where you want to go to and the destination of choice, there are a number of vehicles that can be used to travel to different places. If you want to go by land, you can use the road- cars, busses etc. or even the train. If you want to go by sea, you can pick a ship, boat or yacht. If you want to travel by air, you take a plane. 

Let us look at a list of different means of transport:

1. Land Transport

Land transport refers to the vehicles that can be used to ferry us around from one spot to another on land. Let’s take a look at some examples below – 

2. Air Transport

Air transport refers to the vehicles that can be used to ferry us around from one spot to another via the sky. Let’s take a look at some examples below – 

• Hot Air Balloon
• Space Shuttle
• Blimp/Zepplin
• Hang-glider

3. Water Transport

Water transport refers to the vehicles that can be used to ferry us around from one spot to another via any water body. Let’s take a look at some examples below – 

• Cruise Ship

Other Air, Water & Land Transportation Modes To Learn

Let us take a look at some other transportation vehicles that will help children understand this topic a little better. Here’s a chart on transportation to help – 

Activities That Will Help Your Child  Learn About Modes  Of Transport

Let’s take a look at some activities that will help your child learn about modes of transport. 

1. Pictures & Sounds

• What sounds do the various modes of transportation make? (train – whistle, truck- horn, police car – siren)
• What would these sounds look like if we were to draw them?
• Provide crayons and paper to experiment and play with the colours and shapes of transportation sounds! 

2. Car Prints

• Using old toy cars and paint, let the kids dip the cars in bright paint.
• Then “drive” them across the paper to see what kinds of marks the tires on each vehicle make!
• It’s a fun and creative activity that your kids will love.

3. Shapes Of Vehicles

• It’s fun to see how many types of transportation vehicles can be made using basic geometric shapes (triangles, squares, circles, rectangles).
• Let the kids cut their shapes out of paper and arrange them to create vehicles.

4. Paper Airplanes

• Make paper airplanes in the simplest way.
• Ask your kids to colour them using bright colours.
• See how they fly. 
• Make this a competitive game to see whose plane flies highest, or hands farthest.

5. Paper Boats

• Make boats using paper folding technique.
• Fill a bucket of water.
• Ask your kids to make them float on the surface.
• This will help them understand how and why things float.

6. Around The Neighbourhood

• Make a huge map of your neighbourhood area.
• Mark all the places that they know of and others they might not know of yet.
• Let the kids play with their toy cars on the map so that they can learn more about their neighbourhood. 

7. Vehicles In A Day

• This is a fun activity to play when you want to distract your little ones!
• Make them look at all the different types of vehicles in a day, whether they are moving outside or even if they spot it on TV.
• Ask them to write down all the names.
• Bonus: This will also help with their spellings! 

Let us now look at some interesting facts when it comes to the different modes of transportation! 

• The most popular car colour in the world is white.
• One of the oldest types of transportation is by boat! Sea traders long ago set out in small boats to trade their goods with other people. Did you know that today, ships still use the old sea trade routes?
• In some parts of the world, the most popular mode of travel for a lot of people is by walking or using animals, such as donkeys, horses and camels.
• Flying or using a plane is probably one of the most popular ways to reach faraway destinations. Did you know that over half a million folks are in the air at any one time at a stretch! 
• If any new-age car drove at a speed of an average of 60 miles per hour, straight up in the air, it would reach the moon in less than a month! Wow, thats crazy, right?

Teach your child about all the different types of vehicles and enjoy your next family trip with the knowledge gained from these means of transport ideas and charts.

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Why Transportation Matters in Everyday Life

Moving to distant places requires a means of transportation for convenience. It aids human beings to keep moving around and function with better productivity. Wider aspects of life depend on transportation, including businesses, workers, tourists, and the governing bodies. As the world continues to evolve, so does the transportation system to cater to a lot of people relying on it.

Every kind of transportation plays a huge role during the pandemic, especially in sustaining the global economy. It promotes easier access in delivering items around the world more efficiently. Read on this post to understand more of the benefits of transportation these days.

Advantages of Better Transportation

A world without automobiles and other means of transport may not function very well. Going back to the days when people invented ways to transfer things from one place to another, it was very challenging. It might be shocking but animals have helped the ancestors to carry stuff back then.

Nonetheless, the technology advances through the years and decided to create a more refined way of transporting goods. Life would be easier with the existence of transportation than having none.

With the right vehicle, it will impact your entire lifestyle whether you like it or not. It helps you to thrive each day and also benefits your productivity level.

Transportation also plays a tremendous part in realizing your travel goals. It is impossible to visit places without a ride and life could be so dull not having the chance to explore the world due to lack of transport.

Last but not least, transportation is one of the tools why economic activities persist to move forward. The world cannot survive without it, so technology is doing the right thing to develop more means of transport.

How Does Transportation Work?

The following uses of transportation will help you visualize a better world. You will witness why all types of vehicles matter in your daily life.

1.         Transportation for Businesses

Generating income would be easier with stable access to transportation. It is not simple to run a business as there are a lot of things to consider, including delivering raw materials. This could not happen successfully if the venture does not own any means of transport. It will be a hassle and may lead to losing opportunities and partnerships that help to grow the business.

The majority of the trading process demands the use of vehicles to transfer pieces of stuff a lot faster and safer. A quick turnover can also attract new stakeholders in a shorter period.

In the world of commerce, there are lots of career opportunities that involve transportation jobs. It includes drivers, food delivery services, and even jobs for controlling the traffic. The industry is indeed a great help for millions of people desiring to get a nice job. According to a survey, 14% of employment in the United States work in the transportation industry. This is a huge percentage of people who can survive each day because of transport. 

Most businesses today are in the production sector. Meaning, a proper transport system is needed to complete transactions toward the consumers. The bottom line is transport makes trading a lot smoother that satisfies the market greatly.

2.         Transportation for Convenience

People tend to commute almost every day to reach a destination. This is the major reason why the transportation industry continues to expand its services.  The availability of transport will depend on the location you will visit. For example, some countries can offer all kinds of vehicles, like trains, taxis, planes, and many more.

Perhaps this has been the cause of building plenty of roads to ease travel expenses to consumers. It made life easier and more convenient to go around the world.

Transportation does not only work for grander travel needs but day-to-day demands as well. For instance, if you have a package from another country, a means of transport helps to deliver it. It is indeed a holistic tool for everybody’s comfort.

3.         Transportation for Economy

Transportation is made for personal and business needs. It had a great impact on the overall economy in the past years and also in the future. It creates bridges between stakeholders, suppliers, and anyone involved in the economic functions.

Since people are dependent on transport for recreational activities, this also has good effects on the economy. Businesses around the world can generate more income. Moreover, the use of vehicles comes with a higher fuel cost that benefits the entire economy.

There will be no chances of declining demand for transport because of its reliable uses. Rather, it will continue to rise to sustain economic development globally.

4.         Transportation for Tourism

Among the factors that help the economy to grow is the tourism sector. Everybody knows how a means of transport plays a vital role during travels. It impacts global trade while people move around to explore different cultures and also products of various countries.

Without transportation, the tourism sector would remain stagnant which will impact the world negatively. It really helps to establish a highly competitive and thriving market for tourism.

5.         Transportation & the Supply Chain a Bigger Picture

Transportation is interconnected to the supply chain, not simply in the case of South Africa but in the broader world. For example, the freight forwarding industry relies on many different types of transportation to move cargo from one point to another.

We have gone from a civilisation that had to transport limited quantities of materials due to the technology of the time, to a civilisation that can transport thousands of pieces of cargo over maritime transportation at once.

This allows for the consistent supply of bulk critical materials such as food to sustain the lives of billions of people around the globe. In a sense, transportation extends the reach of humanity and improves the health and range of the global supply chain.

This also allows humanity to progress at a much faster pace than our ancestors did by not having to wait extended periods of time to get parts or supplies for different types of tasks such as building, creating new technology, servicing existing equipment.

6.         Transportation off World

Companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin as well as others, are laying the foundation for regular space travel, lunar bases, and even Martian colonisation. Although in the early stages, the next few decades could see significant advancements in this area of transportation.

Other forms of off-world transportation can be seen in the example of small vehicles such as lunar rovers which provide humanity with valuable data from hostile environments humans can’t explore on their own.

While these types of vehicles don’t transport human beings in the case of lunar rovers, they do transport valuable data back to humanity.

The transport company in Perth benefits the society as a whole. It fulfills a lot of injunctions from personal to trading needs. Its value can never be replaced by anything in this world that is why it comes in different modes. People around the world can do nothing without a means of transport for everyday living. In addition to that, there will be no growth in businesses when transportation did not exist.

1. What is the importance of transportation?

Transportation allows individuals to access education, employment opportunities, and contribute to the social and economic development of their home country. 

Transportation also serves to connect communities that would otherwise be divided by distance

2. Why is transport important in South Africa?

Transportation is vital in South Africa for trade, regional integration, tourism, social inclusion, resource distribution, infrastructure development, and disaster management.

Particularly because of the economic situation and social context of South Africa, reliable and affordable transportation gives individuals access to employment opportunities and encourages deeper social integration between communities.

3. Why is transport so important in any economy?

Transportation is a vital for economic growth and development factor as it facilitates trade, connects both local and global markets, enables access to resources and services, and supports the movement of people and goods in all economies around the world.

4. Why is transportation important in our life?

Transportation is important at an individual level because it improves the quality of one’s life by, promoting mobility, and enhancing personal opportunities and social connections.

Transportation also provides individuals access to education, employment, healthcare, social activities, and essential services such as healthcare.

5. How has transport changed people’s lives?

Transportation has revolutionised lives by increasing mobility, improving access to resources, expanding economic opportunities, fostering social connections, facilitating education, promoting tourism, and aiding in emergency response times.

The Value transport has on our lives

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Affordable, reliable & highly tailored overnight road services delivers with superior reach & in record time.

In a world where businesses demand swift and dependable logistics solutions, Seabourne Logistics is leading with its innovative ONR (overnight road service), setting new industry standards, delivering goods punctually and rapidly expanding its reach to cater to a rapidly growing clientele.

Designed to provide quick and efficient deliveries throughout South Africa, reaching destinations typically accessible solely by air, the overnight service gives clients a competitive edge in today’s fast-paced market.

“The success of our overnight road service can be attributed to our dedication to quality, reliability, and cost-effectiveness,” says Garry Harris, Director at Seabourne Logistics ZA. “We understand that our clients’ success depends on their ability to have goods delivered on time and within budget, and we take that responsibility very seriously.”

Transporting goods overnight by road presents numerous benefits. The foremost advantage is its cost-effectiveness, offering potential savings of up to 50% compared to airfreight services. Moreover, it excels in cargo handling, boasting greater space and flexibility than airlines. This facilitates the transportation of hazardous materials and liquids, which may be subject to stricter airborne regulations.

“While road transport does have its limitations, it is considerably more accommodating, permitting the carriage of items like aerosols or lithium batteries that may be restricted on flights. Importantly, our service consistently upholds high quality standards, ensuring minimal disruptions,” continues Harris.

Seabourne have created distribution hubs and fulfillment centres which are strategically positioned across the country to cater to the growing clientèle. Not only has it increased the service’s reach, but also allows for more efficient transportation networks.

The company has invested heavily in the development of this service.  All linehaul vehicles are equipped with long-range tanks and anti-fatigue cameras that are consistently operated by a double crew, whose activities are closely monitored by a 24-hour control room.

Iveco Turbo Daily 50C 70 vehicles with reinforced heavy-duty tow bars and 1.5-ton trailers are operated within their warranty period on the overnight road service – ensuring reliability. The fleet is subjected to bumper-to-bumper service checks every second to third day, depending on the rotation schedule.

The vehicles have dimensions measuring 4500 (length) x 1700 (width) x 1900 (height), with a carrying capacity of 2.5 tons and 16 cubic metres of space. The trailers have dimensions of 3300 (length) x 1600 (width) x 1700 (height) and can carry 1-1.5 tons with 9 cubic metres of available space. To enhance their robustness, the rear sections of the vehicles are equipped with aluminium cladding walls and Marley-type floors, complete with sunken securing points.

“Businesses, driven by price sensitivity and competition in service delivery, are increasingly opting for this intermediate service that ensures next-day delivery,” explains Harris. “It holds great value in industries like the automotive sector, where the quick movement of parts is crucial. It offers convenience and flexibility, allowing for multiple deliveries in a single trip to remote places often left out from next-day delivery. Moreso, we’re constantly working on expanding our service reach and footprint across the country, providing our clients with a cost-effective solution,” concludes Harris.

The growing logistics company moved to a new and improved facility in November, doubling their warehousing space and preparing to further enhance their reach and maintain their excellent personal service.

Freight Forwarding

Air vs. maritime freight transportation.

Among the popular forms of transport within the freight industry , two of them are seen as extremely efficient with regard to transporting goods over long distances. These forms of transport go by the name of air and maritime freight transportation. Even though they’re very different, they can work really well together, as we’ll explore later on in this article.

Table of Contents

In this article, we’ll be looking at:

• What Air Freight Transportation is

How Air Freight Transportation Works

The top 4 benefits of air freight transportation.

• What Maritime Freight Transportation is

How Maritime Freight Transportation Works

• The Top 4 Benefits of Maritime Freight Transportation
• Frequently Asked Questions

What is Air Freight Transportation?

Air freight transportation, often referred to as air cargo, is the expedited movement of goods via aircraft. This mode of transportation is favoured for its speed and reliability, making it the essential choice for businesses dealing with time-sensitive cargo.

The process of air freight transportation involves the following key steps:

Step 1: Cargo Acceptance

Businesses deliver their goods to an airport cargo terminal, where the items are inspected, documented, and prepared for flight.

Step 2: Loading and Transport

Once cleared for departure, cargo is loaded onto aircraft, ranging from small cargo planes to jumbo jets, depending on the volume and nature of the goods.

Step 3: Air Transit

The cargo is flown to its destination airport, where it is unloaded and cleared through customs.

Step 4: Final Delivery

After customs clearance, the cargo is transported to its final destination, often by ground transportation.

There are a couple of reasons why people continue to invest in the air freight industry. Below is a list of some of the benefits of air freight transportation .

1.     Speed:

Air freight is unparalleled when it comes to delivering goods quickly. It significantly reduces transit times, making it an ideal choice for perishable or time-sensitive cargo.

2.     Reliability:

Air cargo schedules are highly predictable, thanks to the frequent and regular flight services offered by airlines.

3.     Global Reach:

Air freight connects virtually every corner of the globe, enabling businesses to access international markets with ease.

4.     Enhanced Security:

Airports have stringent security measures in place, reducing the risk of theft and damage to cargo.

What is Maritime Freight Transportation?

Maritime freight transportation, commonly known as sea freight, involves the shipment of goods via cargo vessels across oceans and seas. This method is renowned for its cost-effectiveness, particularly for bulk and non-perishable cargo.

The maritime freight transportation process encompasses several stages:

Stage 1: Cargo Loading

Cargo is packed into shipping containers at the origin port and loaded onto cargo vessels.

Stage 2: Voyage

The cargo vessel embarks on its journey across the sea, navigating established maritime routes.

Stage 3: Port Unloading

Upon reaching the destination port, cargo containers are unloaded, and customs clearance procedures are initiated.

Stage 4: Onward Transport

Goods are transported from the port to their final destination, typically by road or rail.

The Top 4 Advantages of Maritime Freight Transportation

The maritime freight industry has its challenges that need to be addressed continuously, but there are a couple of reasons why it hasn’t disappeared.

1.     Cost Efficiency

Sea freight is often more economical for large or bulky cargo due to its lower shipping rates.

2.     Eco-Friendly

Maritime transportation is comparatively eco-friendly, with lower carbon emissions per ton of cargo transported.

3.     High Capacity

Cargo vessels have immense capacity, making them suitable for transporting vast quantities of goods.

4.     Versatility

Sea freight can handle a wide range of cargo types, from consumer goods to heavy machinery.

How They Can Work Together

In an increasingly interconnected world, businesses often find that combining air and maritime freight can be a winning strategy. Air freight ensures the swift delivery of time-sensitive components or products, while sea freight handles larger volumes of goods more economically. This harmonious partnership can help optimise supply chains and reduce overall transportation costs.

FAQ: Clearing the Air and Water

If we haven’t answered some of the questions you had in mind, have a look at the frequently asked questions below:

Is air freight more expensive than sea freight?

Yes, air freight is generally more expensive per kilogram or cubic meter of cargo due to the speed and reliability it offers.

Can fragile items be shipped via sea freight?

Yes, fragile items can be shipped via sea freight by using proper packaging and stowage techniques to minimise the risk of damage during transit.

How long does sea freight take compared to air freight?

Sea freight takes longer, often several weeks, whereas air freight can transport goods across continents in a matter of days.

Final Thoughts

In the world of freight transportation, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. The choice between air and maritime freight depends on various factors, including the nature of the cargo, budget constraints, and delivery timelines.

By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each mode and considering the possibility of combining them strategically, businesses can navigate the global supply chain with confidence, delivering their goods efficiently and profitably to markets around the world.

AI in the Maritime Freight Industry

Technology is continuing to revolutionise industries and the maritime freight industry, one of the popular forms of freight transportation in South Africa , isn’t an exception. The industry is on the brink of another transformation with the potential of integrating artificial intelligence (AI) into the industry.

AI promises to bring some exciting new benefits to the harbour, although we shouldn’t expect the implementation of AI to be smooth sailing, as it comes with its challenges as well.

In this article, we’ll be exploring:

• The benefits of AI in the Maritime Freight Industry
• The challenges of AI in the Maritime Freight Industry

Let’s set sail.

The Benefits of AI in the Maritime Freight Industry

There are many reasons why people are so excited about AI joining the maritime freight industry at the shore. Below is a list of the most significant.

1. Enhanced Operational Efficiency

The maritime freight industry can get very complicated given that there are so many moving parts. Any opportunity where technology can help simplify the process is welcome, and AI could do just that.

One great example of this is predictive analytics. This allows shipping companies to optimise routes and fuel consumption based on issues like bad weather in real-time. This reduces cost and minimises the overall environmental impact of the industry.

2. Improved Safety

Concerning maritime freight transportation, safety is of utmost importance. Artificial intelligence has the ability to identify potential safety hazards in real time. Hazards such as weather anomalies can be detected, enabling swift responses and reducing the likelihood of accidents at sea.

3. Enhanced Cargo Tracking

With the help of AI, real-time visibility into cargo shipments is possible. You, as a customer, will be able to monitor the status and location of their goods from the harbour right to your doorstep. You’ll know exactly where your product is at all times.

The Challenges of AI in the Maritime Freight Industry

Nothing’s perfect, and the maritime freight industry is no exception. It comes with its fair share of challenges, some of which are listed below.

1. High Initial Investment

A huge issue with implementing technology into the maritime industry is the hefty upfront costs. Smaller organisations may get discouraged because of this, although the implementation of AI may be more cost-effective over the long term.

2. Data Quality and Security

Artificial intelligence relies heavily, if not entirely on data. Making sure that the data is accurate, secure and private is a constant challenge organisations have to deal with. Any data breach can result in severe consequences for both organisations and individuals.

3. Workforce Adaptation

One of the biggest concerns with regard to the integration of AI is how employees would have to adapt. Organisations will have to train their employees to use their newly integrated AI systems which my add more to the initial cost of the implementation. Employees may also resist the change from the traditional system, a system that they’re very familiar with.

AI is in a position to completely change the maritime freight industry. Let’s not forget about the challenges we’ll need to overcome to successfully make that happen. Getting excited over benefits such as enhanced operational efficiency is great, but finding ways we could mitigate the challenges as well is equally important. If we can do that, we’re on our way to a more safe and efficient maritime freight industry.

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Importance of Means of Transports in Human Life

In the series of educational contents, here we again come up with another knowledge based resource for kids. In this article, we are exploring one of the very important objects around us i.e., Means of Transport. Through this article, kids will gain knowledge about different types of transports and their importance in our life.

Types of Transport:

• Run by Motor
• Run but living beings

• Land transport
• Water transport
• Air transport

Land Transport

Water Transport :

Air Transport :

More articles: Means of transport

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30 Examples of Means of Transportation

The means of transport They are vehicles used to move people, information or merchandise from one place to another. They can be terrestrial (when they circulate on land), maritime (when they circulate through the water), aerial (when they circulate through the sky) and space (when they circulate through space). For example: a car, a ship, a plane, a spaceship .

Transportation is an essential part of development of civilizations , the need to go from one place to another or to exchange merchandise led human beings to invent techniques and ways to conquer land, water, air and space. For a long time, transfers were made on foot or animals were used. Later, in prehistory, the wheel ushered in new forms of transportation.

There are means of transportation short, medium and long distance (depending on the trip they have to travel) and can be human-powered, fuel -based or electric.

Types of means of transport

There are different criteria to classify means of transport .

Depending on the route:

• land route . They are the means of transport that circulate on land. They can be mechanical (manufactured), for example: trucks, trains and bicycles ; or natural (when animals are used), for example: mules for freight transport, horses for moving people and carriages.
• waterway . They are the means of transport that move in the water (rivers, seas or lakes). Its beginnings date back to 3500 BC. C. For example: ships, ships, boats and submarines .
• Airway . They are the means of transport that move through the air. Its heyday began in the second half of the 20th century. For example: helicopters and planes .
• space pathway . They are the means of transport that transport people or objects to outer space. This type of transport began to develop in the 20th century. For example: rockets and spaceships .

Depending on the type of access:

• Public transport . They are public access transport, which transport several people from one point to another and usually have established or fixed routes. For example: taxis, commercial planes and buses.
• Private transport . They are transports for personal or private use that can only be used by the owner or by authorized persons. For example: cars, bicycles, private planes and helicopters .

Depending on the type of load:

• Freight transport . They are the transports whose purpose is the transfer of a merchandise by sea, land or air. They can be public or private. For example: a cargo ship .
• passenger transport . They are the transports whose function is the transfer of people, they can be public or private, and land, sea or air. For example: a bus . They are urban when they move people from one point to another within the same city, or long distance when they move from one point to another further away.

Examples of means of transportation

Terrestrial.

• Quadricycle

air and space

• Hot air balloon
• paragliding

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Privacy Overview

What is means of transport

• October 7, 2023

Means of transport are vehicles or other devices used to transport people or goods from one place to another. They can be classified into three main categories:

• Land transport: This includes vehicles that travel on the ground, such as cars, buses, trains, and trucks.
• Water transport: This includes vessels that travel on water , such as boats, ships, and ferries.
• Air transport: This includes aircraft that travel through the air, such as airplanes and helicopters.

What is meant by means of transport?

What are the 5 means of transport, why is the means of transport important, what is transport and its types, what is the famous transport in india, who is biggest transporter in india.

Each mode of transport has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, land transport is the most common mode of transport because it is relatively inexpensive and accessible. However, it can be slow and congested in urban areas. Water transport is often used to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, but it can be slow and vulnerable to weather conditions . Air transport is the fastest mode of transport, but it is also the most expensive.

The choice of mode of transport depends on a number of factors, including the distance to be traveled, the type of goods being transported , the cost, and the time constraints.

Here are some examples of means of transport:

• Land transport: Cars, buses, trains, trucks, bicycles, motorcycles, scooters, rickshaws, and animal-drawn carts.
• Water transport: Boats, ships, ferries, submarines, and hovercraft.
• Air transport: Airplanes, helicopters, hot air balloons, and gliders.

Means of transport are essential for the movement of people and goods around the world. They play a vital role in economic development and trade.

• Water transport: This includes vessels that travel on water, such as boats, ships, and ferries.

Each mode of transport has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, land transport is the most common mode of transport because it is relatively inexpensive and accessible. However, it can be slow and congested in urban areas. Water transport is often used to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, but it can be slow and vulnerable to weather conditions. Air transport is the fastest mode of transport, but it is also the most expensive.

The choice of mode of transport depends on a number of factors, including the distance to be traveled, the type of goods being transported, the cost, and the time constraints.

In addition to the three major categories listed above, there are also other types of means of transport, such as:

• Pipeline transport: This is used to transport liquids and gases through pipes.
• Cable transport: This is used to transport people and goods in cable cars or gondolas.
• Space transport: This is used to transport people and goods to and from space.

Means of transport are constantly evolving, and new technologies are being developed to improve their efficiency and sustainability. For example, electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular, and there is a growing interest in developing autonomous vehicles.

The five most common means of transport are:

Each mode of transport has its own advantages and disadvantages. Land transport is the most common mode of transport because it is relatively inexpensive and accessible. However, it can be slow and congested in urban areas. Water transport is often used to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, but it can be slow and vulnerable to weather conditions. Air transport is the fastest mode of transport, but it is also the most expensive. Pipeline transport is an efficient way to transport liquids and gases over long distances, but it is expensive to build and maintain. Cable transport is a popular mode of transport in mountainous areas, but it is limited in capacity.

Here are some examples of how the five means of transport are used in everyday life:

• Land transport: People use cars, buses, and trains to commute to work or school. Trucks are used to transport goods to and from businesses.
• Water transport: Ships are used to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, such as oil, grain, and coal. Ferries are used to transport people and vehicles between islands and across rivers and lakes.
• Air transport: Airplanes are used to travel long distances quickly. They are also used to transport goods that need to be delivered urgently, such as medicine and fresh produce.
• Pipeline transport: Pipelines are used to transport oil, natural gas, and water over long distances. They are also used to transport chemicals and other hazardous materials.
• Cable transport: Cable cars are used to transport people and goods in mountainous areas, such as ski resorts and tourist attractions.

Means of transport are important for a number of reasons. They allow people to travel long distances and to transport goods to and from different locations. This is essential for economic development and trade. Means of transport also play a vital role in social and cultural development, allowing people to connect with each other and to experience new cultures.

Here are some of the specific benefits of means of transport:

• Economic development: Means of transport allow businesses to operate more efficiently and to reach a wider market. This can lead to increased economic growth and job creation.
• Trade: Means of transport allow goods to be transported to and from different locations, which is essential for global trade.
• Social development: Means of transport allow people to travel long distances and to connect with each other. This can lead to increased social interaction and cultural exchange.
• Cultural development: Means of transport allow people to experience new cultures and to learn about different ways of life. This can lead to a more tolerant and understanding society.

In addition to these specific benefits, means of transport also play a vital role in many other areas of life, such as education, healthcare, and emergency services.

Here are some examples of how means of transport are used in everyday life:

• Students take buses or trains to commute to school.
• Workers take cars, buses, or trains to commute to work.
• Businesses use trucks to transport goods to and from their warehouses and stores.
• People use cars to travel to visit friends and family.
• People use airplanes to travel long distances for business or pleasure.
• Ambulances transport sick and injured people to the hospital.
• Fire trucks transport firefighters to the scene of fires.
• Police cars transport police officers to the scene of crimes.

Means of transport are essential for the modern world. They allow people to travel long distances and to transport goods quickly and efficiently. This plays a vital role in economic development, trade, and social and cultural development.

Transport is the movement of people, animals, and goods from one place to another. It is an essential part of our lives, and it plays a vital role in economic development and trade.

There are three main types of transport:

Each mode of transport has its own advantages and disadvantages. Land transport is the most common mode of transport because it is relatively inexpensive and accessible. However, it can be slow and congested in urban areas. Water transport is often used to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, but it can be slow and vulnerable to weather conditions. Air transport is the fastest mode of transport, but it is also the most expensive.

In addition to the three main categories listed above, there are also other types of transport, such as:

Transport is essential for the movement of people and goods around the world. It plays a vital role in economic development, trade, and social and cultural development.

Here are some examples of how transport is used in everyday life:

• People use cars, buses, and trains to commute to work or school.

Transport is constantly evolving, and new technologies are being developed to improve its efficiency and sustainability. For example, electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular, and there is a growing interest in developing autonomous vehicles.

India is a large and diverse country, and there are many different types of transport that are popular in different regions. However, some of the most famous and widely used forms of transport in India include:

• Trains: India has the fourth-largest railway network in the world, and trains are a popular way to travel long distances. Trains are also a relatively affordable way to travel, and they offer a variety of amenities, such as sleeping cars and dining cars.
• Buses: Buses are another popular form of transport in India, especially for short-distance travel. Buses are often more affordable than trains, and they can be more convenient for traveling to remote areas.
• Cars: Cars are becoming increasingly popular in India, especially among the middle class. Cars offer the convenience of traveling at your own pace and on your own schedule. However, cars can be expensive to purchase and maintain, and they can also contribute to traffic congestion.
• Auto-rickshaws: Auto-rickshaws, also known as tuk-tuks, are a popular form of transport for short distances in urban areas. Auto-rickshaws are relatively inexpensive and convenient, but they can be noisy and uncomfortable.
• Two-wheelers: Two-wheelers, such as motorcycles and scooters, are a very popular form of transport in India, especially among the youth. Two-wheelers are relatively inexpensive and fuel-efficient, and they can be more convenient for navigating traffic congestion than cars.

In addition to these popular forms of transport, there are also a number of other modes of transport that are used in India, such as:

• Taxis: Taxis are a convenient way to travel short distances, but they can be expensive.
• Metros: Metros are a popular form of transport in major cities, such as Delhi and Mumbai. Metros are fast and efficient, but they can be crowded during peak hours.
• Ferries: Ferries are used to transport people and goods across rivers and lakes.
• Airplanes: Airplanes are a fast way to travel long distances, but they are also the most expensive mode of transport.

The best form of transport for you will depend on your budget, your needs, and the distance you are traveling. If you are traveling long distances, trains are a good option. If you are traveling short distances, buses or auto-rickshaws are a good option. If you are traveling in a major city, metros are a good option. And if you are traveling long distances quickly, airplanes are a good option.

The biggest transporter in India is the Indian Railways. It is the fourth-largest railway network in the world, with over 68,000 kilometers of track and over 13,000 passenger trains operating daily. The Indian Railways transports over 23 million passengers and over 3 million tonnes of freight every day.

Other major transporters in India include:

• Container Corporation of India (CONCOR): CONCOR is a public sector undertaking that provides integrated logistics and transportation services. It is the largest container transporter in India, with a network of over 70 terminals.
• VRL Logistics: VRL Logistics is a private sector company that provides logistics and transportation services across India. It is one of the largest fleet owners in India, with over 4,000 vehicles.
• TCI: TCI is a private sector company that provides transportation and logistics services. It is one of the largest logistics providers in India, with a network of over 1,000 offices.
• Mahindra Logistics: Mahindra Logistics is a private sector company that provides logistics and transportation services. It is part of the Mahindra Group, one of the largest conglomerates in India.

These are just a few of the many transporters that operate in India. The Indian transportation sector is large and diverse, and there are many different companies that offer a variety of services.

The best transporter for you will depend on your specific needs. If you are looking for a reliable and affordable way to transport goods or people long distances, the Indian Railways is a good option. If you need more specialized services, such as temperature-controlled transportation or hazardous cargo transportation, there are many private sector companies that offer these services

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Means of Transportation and Communication

Both transport and communication play an essential role in developing our country.

Transportation helps us travel and move goods from one place to another.

The use of transportation depends upon our need to move things from the place of their availability to the place of their use.

Means of Transport

Transport is known as the lifeline of our country.

We, humans, use various modes of transport to travel and move goods from one place to another. This is done with the help of different means of transportation, such as trucks, lorry, containers, buses, rail, aeroplanes and ships.

The four primary means of transport are roadways, railways, waterways and airways.

• Roadways are the oldest means of transport.
• The means of road transport are cycle, rickshaw, bus, truck, car, scooter, motorcycle, bullock cart, tonga or tanga, camel cart, etc.
• Roadways are helpful in the transportation of raw materials, goods and they are connected to far off places. Roadways are available in small villages, as well as in plains, mountains, etc.
• Our country has a dense grid of roadways, and the total area of the road network is about 33 lakh kilometres.

Roadways are divided into:

National Highways

• These roadways connect the state capitals, major cities, and ports.
• Altogether there are 77 national highways, and their total length is 70,935 km.

State Highways

• These roadways connect the district headquarters with the main cities.
• The State Government maintains the state highways.

District Highways

• These roadways are also called the local roadways.
• These roadways are respective for districts and villages.
• They connect or link the towns with the district headquarters.
• The district highways are maintained by the PWD department or the district administration.

Village Roads

• These roadways connect with other villages, and to the main roads of the district or the cities.
• The village panchayats or district panchayats maintain the village roadways.
• In India, Railways was first started in 1853.
• The first railway track was built from Mumbai to Thane.
• Indian rail transport is the biggest in Asia and second in the world.
• Compared to roads and other means of transportation, railways are cheaper.
• Most people travel and carry their goods through rail- transport in the world.

Based on the width of the railway tracks, it has been classified into three categories.

• Broad Gauge
• Metre Gauge
• Narrow Gauge
• The water transport started before road and rail transport.
• It is comparatively less expensive than rail and road transport.
• An important role is played by water transport in foreign trades.
• About 90 to 92 per cent of Indian foreign business is done through water transport.

The Indian water transport is divided into two categories:

Inland waterways

• Inland waterways are also called the National Waterways.
• Boats, motorboats and launches, are the source of transport systems used in inland waterways.
• This type of water transport uses major rivers and canals to transport people and goods.
• The waterways transport goods from one place to another inside a landmass.

Marine waterways

• Steamers and ships are the sources of transport systems used in marine waterways.
• This type of water transport uses oceans and seas to transport people and goods from one country to another.
• Harbours are where big ships stop, and cargo is loaded and unloaded.
• India has 92 shipping companies and 12 big ports and harbours.
• Airways are the fastest means of transport.
• Aeroplanes and helicopters are the sources of transport systems used in Airways.
• Air transport is the primary mode of high-speed transport. The Wright Brothers introduced the first flying machine in 1903.

In 1953, airways got nationalised, and all airline companies were classified into two corporations, Indian Airlines and Air India.

There are twelve international airports in India and more than 20 national airports.

Means of Communication

Communication is a process that involves sending and receiving messages through verbal and non-verbal methods.

The various means of communication available to us are telephone, wireless, mobile phones, internet, etc.

Stay tuned to BYJU’S for more information on NIOS, syllabus, notes, along with its important questions and solutions.

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Facial recognition: Security at RDU, other airports now means having your photo taken

When Micah Kordsmeier of Durham arrived at the U.S. Customs and Border Protection booth at Raleigh-Durham International Airport after a trip to Mexico, the officer didn’t ask for his passport.

Instead, she told Kordsmeier to look into a camera.

His photo was taken, and he went on his way, “no explanation given whatsoever,” he said.

This was Korsdmeier’s first encounter with facial recognition technology at RDU that federal agencies increasingly use to verify a traveler’s identity. Customs and Border Protection began using it for arriving international passengers at RDU in 2021. Now the Transportation Security Administration is introducing it at checkpoints for all passengers departing the airport.

The photos are optional, except for foreign nationals entering the country. But that’s not always made clear. Kordsmeier said he wasn’t asked whether he wanted his photo taken and didn’t see any signs informing him of his right to opt out.

“I don’t really know what the technology is, so I am curious about the security level,” he said. “I’m not really familiar with it.”

Many travelers aren’t. But facial recognition technology is fast becoming standard in airport security and starting to crop up in other places, often in the name of convenience. Some airlines are experimenting with facial recognition systems for baggage drop, while Major League Baseball teams are beginning to use apps that allow fans with tickets to enter the park based on scans of their faces.

Not everyone is bullish on the technology. A bipartisan group of U.S. senators introduced a bill last fall that would prohibit the TSA from using facial recognition, primarily because of privacy concerns.

“The TSA program is a precursor to a full-blown national surveillance state,” Sen. Jeff Merkley, a Democrat from Oregon, said in a statement. “Nothing could be more damaging to our national values of privacy and freedom. No government should be trusted with this power.”

The bill has not advanced. But the TSA has posted signs at each security checkpoint letting passengers know that having their photo taken is optional.

Here’s how the technology works at RDU.

Transportation Security Administration

Facial recognition is a component of what the TSA calls Credential Authentication Technology or CAT . The first generation of CAT machines scan a traveler’s driver’s license or passport to confirm that it’s authentic. The machines also automatically tap into a database of people scheduled to fly that day, so passengers no longer need to show a boarding pass to the TSA officer.

But officers still need to verify that the person standing in front of them is the one whose ID they just scanned. With the early CAT machines, they do that manually, looking from the photo to the person and back again.

The newer machines, known as CAT-2, have a camera and software that takes the passenger’s photo and compares it with the photo on the ID to verify it’s the same person. If CAT-2 determines an ID is invalid or the photos don’t match, the TSA officer will call airport police, said Dan Velez, regional spokesperson for the agency.

“I don’t have statistics on how often that happens,” Velez wrote in an email, “but it’s very infrequently.”

If a person declines to have a photo taken, the TSA officer will check the person’s ID manually. Travelers under 18 are not photographed.

The TSA says it doesn’t store the photos it takes at the airport and that they’re not used for any other purpose.

The TSA installed its first six CAT-2 machines at RDU in late June. The remaining 19 CAT units are scheduled to be converted to CAT-2 on Aug. 26, Velez said.

Customs and Border Protection

About 1,600 passengers a day arrive at RDU from international destinations and are scanned by CBP’s facial comparison technology. They no longer need to show their passports at the inspection booth — only pose for a photo.

The use of facial recognition at customs grew out of the 9/11 Commission Congress created in the wake of the terrorist attacks in 2001. The hijackers used fake IDs to board the planes that day, prompting the commission to conclude that “a biometric entry-exit system is an essential investment in national security.”

CBP’s Traveler Verification Service uses an algorithm to compare a live photo of the traveler to images from passports, visas or photos from other documents on file with the Department of Homeland Security.

If the algorithm flags a discrepancy between the two, a CBP officer will manually scan the individual’s passport.

Miguel Garza, CBP area port director for Charlotte, said use of the technology makes travel easier on passengers, saying “it takes seconds.”

“This is a platform that ultimately allows us to be more efficient and allows us to confirm the traveler to their passport and to documents a lot faster,” Garza said in an interview.

Unlike the TSA, which does not store photos, CBP holds images of U.S. citizens for up to 12 hours. Non-U.S. citizens’ photos can be held by the Department of Homeland Security for up to 14 days.

RDU is one of 32 airports that use biometric facial comparison technology to identify passengers for entry into the United States, according to the agency. As of April, it also uses the technology for travelers exiting the country.

Privacy versus security

Kordsmeier, the Durham resident who came through customs at RDU recently, said he didn’t have any privacy concerns about having his photo taken.

“I know traveling internationally, you give up certain kinds of privacy,” he said.

Indeed, many airline travelers have already willingly given up biometric information in return for security and convenience.

The TSA’s PreCheck program provides expedited treatment at security checkpoints to passengers who provide identity documents and have their photo and fingerprints taken in advance. And passengers can bypass a step at checkpoints by enrolling in CLEAR, a private program that uses eye scans and fingerprints to verify people’s identity .

The conversation about facial recognition is “privacy versus security,” said Cynthia Rudin, a Duke University computer science professor and member of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine’s research committee on facial recognition .

Rudin said concerns about the privacy of CBP’s technology in particular may be misplaced. The agency already has a database with each traveler’s photo from passports and other travel documents — and it has clear rules about how long photos taken at an airport remain in the system, she said.

While she understands how people might be uneasy about somebody taking their picture and analyzing it in a computer, Rudin says CBP and TSA follow clear policies about data storage and privacy.

She’s more concerned about the use of facial recognition technology in the private sphere.

“The guy on the street using facial recognition on their phone doesn’t follow those policies,” she said. “So the people you should be afraid of are not necessarily the people you think.”

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