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• Published: 13 November 2024

Analysis of multidimensional impacts of electric vehicles penetration in distribution networks

• Rania A. Ibrahim 1 ,
• Ibrahim. M. Gaber 1 &
• Nahla E. Zakzouk 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  27854 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Electrical and electronic engineering
• Energy grids and networks
• Power distribution

Moving towards a cleaner, greener, and more sustainable future, expanding electric vehicles (EVs) adoption is inevitable. However, uncontrolled charging of EVs, especially with their increased penetration among the utility grid, imposes several negative technical impacts, including grid instability and deteriorated power quality in addition to overloading conditions. Hence, smart and coordinated charging is crucial in EV electrification, where Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology is gaining much interest. Owing to its inherited capability of bi-directional power flow, V2G is capable of enhancing grid stability and resilience, load balancing, and congestion alleviation, as well as supporting renewable energy sources (RESs) integration. However, as with most emerging technologies, there are still technical research gaps that need to be addressed. In addition to these technical impacts, other multidisciplinary factors must be investigated to promote EVs adoption and V2G implementation. This paper provides a detailed demonstration of the technical problems associated with EVs penetration in distribution networks along with quantifiable insights into these limitations and the corresponding mitigation schemes. In addition, it discusses V2G benefits for power systems and consumers, as well as explores their technical barriers and research directions to adequately regulate their services and encourage EV’s owners to its embracement. Moreover, other factors, including regulatory, social, economic and environmental ones that affect EV market penetration are being studied and related challenges are analyzed to draw recommendations that aid market growth.

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Introduction.

The transportation sector is one of the largest consumers of fossil fuels and a major contributor to greenhouse gases, accounting for more than 20% of the world’s carbon emissions and 30% of the energy consumption worldwide 1 , 2 . In urban areas, air pollution is most pronounced due to traffic congestion, increased population density and concentration of vehicle emissions. This issue necessitates road transport electrification i.e. replacing internal combustion vehicles with new energy vehicles such as electric vehicles (EV), which appears promising towards achieving urban sustainability. With electrified transportation, a shift to greener transport will take place, reducing reliance on traditional energy sources and realizing energy-saving schemes that are reliable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly with fewer global gas emissions. This serves well for sustainable development goals (SDGs), notably sdg3: Good Health and Well-being and sdg7: Affordable and clean Energy 3 .

As they achieve market acceptability, the demand for EVs is anticipated to increase significantly especially in smart cities, along with shared mobility and public transport as a replacement for the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles 4 . The global EV fleet is predicted to reach 230 million vehicles in 2030, and 58% of vehicles are anticipated to be EVs in 2040 5 . According to 1 , China is the frontrunner, accounting for 60% of global electric car sales in 2022 and is reportedly aiming to ban fossil fuel-powered vehicle sales in the future 6 . Despite all these anticipated projections, large-scale uptake of EVs is limited by several challenges related to the shorter EV driving range compared to that of gasoline-powered vehicles 7 . Hence, to allow large scale EV adoption, adequate and widely spread charging infrastructure is mandatory.

However, implementing charging infrastructure on a large-scale is competitively costly and associated with several technological challenges, in addition to its noticeable impact on the power grid. With the accelerated adoption of EVs worldwide, several simultaneous charging operations are needed, which affect the utility grid, especially when large amounts of electric energy are required in a short period. Figure  1 depicts the progression of electrical power supplied to light-duty EVs by employing different charger types between 2022 and 2030. Notably, the capacity expansion of fast public chargers profoundly outperforms that of public slow chargers by a factor of 13 and surpasses that of private chargers by 20 times 1 . However, placing fast chargers can induce stresses on the existing electrical infrastructure, leading to negative consequences for the power grid which may necessitate costly utility upgrades. Moreover, uncontrolled charging activities pose significant challenges to local grid stability and may cause voltage variations and imbalances as well as transformer and transmission network overloads in addition to large network losses and harmonics 8 , 9 . To address these negative technical impacts imposed on the utility grid by the vast penetration of EVs charging stations, coordinated charging approaches along with vehicle-to-grid technology (V2G) are promising 10 .

Electricity delivered to electric light-duty vehicles by charger type, 2022–2030 1 .

V2G technology allows bidirectional flow of power between EVs and the power grid via advanced communication systems and smart charging framework. Hence, EV owners have the flexibility to either draw electricity from the grid or inject surplus power back into it during periods of high demand, thus maximizing their financial benefits 11 . Moreover, V2G technology’s potential extends beyond being just an energy storage system for EVs since it can have significant positive impacts on the entire grid i.e. it can improve grid stability, reliability, and flexibility, act as a spinning reserve, emergency backup power and storage for RESs excess and achieve load balancing and congestion management functions 12 . Thus, V2G technology has promising potential for reshaping the EV charging landscape, making it more efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. However, like most emerging technologies, there are still technical barriers facing V2G such as the need for EV charging scheduling, coordination and infrastructure planning, EV battery handling and disposal, V2G communication systems and cybersecurity 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . These obstacles require further research for a more sustainable and expandable future and to take prominent measures that would accelerate the adoption of this technology and increase its market share.

However, not only technical impacts would arise from EV penetration and V2G technology adoption. Other factors may include policies and regulations, and social acceptance, in addition to economic and environmental aspects which are still under study; but not broadly investigated 2 , 6 , 17 . Thus, studies need to be directed towards these aspects to close potential knowledge gaps which in turn aids in promoting V2G technology among consumers and governments to hasten its market growth.

Table  1 compares what the most recent publications on the impacts of EV penetration have included in their study, including direct effects on the grid, influences, and barriers at various levels and whether any recommendations were drawn. It is clear that 18 , 19 , 20 , are concerned with the effect of EV penetration into the distribution network, associated problems, and respective solutions along with potential technical challenges without involving any other factors. In contrast, studies in 14 , 15 , 21 , 22 did not discuss the problems reflected in the grid resulting from EV penetration although they studied more than one influencing factor. In 21 , the authors studied technological and economic factors, whereas in 14 , technical, economic, and environmental factors were covered. On the contrary 15 , studied all the factors except regulatory ones, whereas 22 involved them all. Although 6 , 9 , 12 , 16 , 17 , 23 discussed associated problems and solutions when integrating EVs to grid along with studying more than one influencing factor, not all factors from different orientations were covered. Finally, no recommendations or suggestions are provided by 9 , 12 , 24 to promote EV adoption. Comparatively, the work in this paper outweighs all the latter, in the detailed demonstration on the problems associated with EV integration to utility while sorting quantified insights and presenting viable solutions and mitigation techniques as well as pinning out benefits of this integration. Moreover, critical factors from all levels (technological, social, economic, regulatory, and environmental) are studied and key findings are highlighted. Then, for each factor, challenges and barriers are listed and related to findings to drive recommendations and measures that help accelerate EV adoption and increase V2G acceptance among society and governments.

Hence, the significance of this paper resides in the deep study and thorough analysis carried out on the influencing factors of EV penetration in a grid, covering the following points:

Current EV charging technologies, infrastructure and operation modes for integration into the grid.

A strong foundation for technical impacts, including the following:

Sorted insights and quantified analysis of the negative impacts of EV penetration into the grid along with the respective mitigation schemes.

Investigation of V2G technology and its related economics benefits and auxiliary services offered to the grid.

Technical barriers and research gaps facing this technology and decelerating its market growth.

Suggested research directions to explore advancements and close knowledge gaps related to this technology

Going beyond the technical level and studying other factors related to political, economic, social and environmental levels along with investigating respective research challenges.

By relating key findings and challenges for each aspect, recommendations are drawn, and measures are suggested to be taken by governments, decision makers, manufacturers, stakeholders, consumers, etc., to help remove obstacles and encourage the wider use of EVs.

Compared with other studies in the literature, the proposed study outperforms others in covering multidimensional impacts related to EV integration in the grid along with establishing quantified insights, highlighting key findings, demonstrating research challenges and finally connecting all the latter to provide tangible conclusions to promote V2G adoption and market growth.

EV charging infrastructure

EV charging is the process of restoring the energy in EV battery by connecting the EV to a charger or a charging station. There are several EV charging techniques, charger types and charging modes as follows:

EV charging technologies

EV charging can be classified into three main technologies: conductive charging, wireless (i.e., contactless) charging and battery swapping as shown in Fig.  2 16 , 18 , 19 , 25 . Conductivity charging is related to the process of charging an EV via direct physical contact (such as a wire) between the power source and the battery. This technology includes on-board and off-board chargers. The former allows the EV to be charged by simply plugging an on-board charger installed on the vehicle itself in any available electrical outlet, whereas off-board chargers are not integrated into the electric vehicle and are typically found in fast-charging stations, business parking lots, and roadways. Although off-board chargers feature greater power transfer capabilities than do on-board chargers, i.e., provide EVs with a higher power charge at a shorter charging duration, they are not available in all places and are more expensive and complex 18 , 25 . Unlike conductive charging, wireless charging allows an EV to automatically charge without the need for a physical connection between the EV battery and the power source since power transmission is performed via an electromagnetic field 19 . Although this contactless technology can reduce the risk of electric shocks and related damage since power is transmitted through the air gap, it has relatively low charging efficiency because of the existence of a large air gap, noncompliance of the windings and large distances between the charger (transmitter) and the receiver installed on the vehicle. Additionally, the high voltage and high power necessary for EV charging bring additional challenges regarding the cost of wireless charging systems 16 . Battery swapping technology is considered a fast way to fully charge the EV battery where the discharged batteries are replaced by newly charged batteries at a battery swapping station. This reduces the charging time for the EV owner, and the operation and overall efficiency of the power grid can be enhanced by optimal charge and discharge management of batteries at the battery swapping station 19 . Nevertheless, battery mismatch is a challenging issue since the detached battery should have the same characteristics as the newly charged battery that will replace it for efficient performance. Moreover, this technology infrastructure is more complex and expensive than others, which puts more cost on the battery owner when dealing with battery swapping stations 16 .

EV charging technologies.

Despite the merits of wireless and battery swapping technologies, they are still under development to mitigate their limitations. Comparatively, conductive charging is the simplest and currently the most common charging method since it features high charging efficiency at the lowest realization complexity and cost for EV owners, as shown in Table  2 16 , 26 .

EV conductive charger types

As mentioned earlier, two conductivity-based charging strategies exist: (a) an on-board charger and (b) an off-board charger. The former is suitable for AC slow chargers since it features Level 1 and Level 2 charging schemes, while the latter features Level 3 and Level 4 which are convenient for AC and DC fast chargers 27 , 28 . Thus, conductive charger types can be further subdivided into Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, and Level 4 types on the basis of the charging level as shown in Fig.  2 .

The abovementioned charging levels are specified in IEC 61851-1 and SAE J1772 29 , 30 . They are used to categorize the rated power, voltage, and current of the charging system according to the input current nature (AC or DC) and the power level, which is further reflected in the charging time, as deduced from Table  3 . Conductive-based EV chargers are classified into four types: Level 1 chargers, Level 2 chargers, DC fast chargers (Level 3) and ultrafast chargers. Level 1 chargers are typically used at home or workplaces, and they feature low charging capacity by using a standard AC power outlet, whereas Level 2 chargers offer higher charging capacity as well as relatively faster charging capability. These chargers require dedicated charging stations, which can typically be found at public stations such as parking lots or shopping malls, where EVs are parked for an extended period of time. The level 3 DC fast charger, on the other hand, has a much higher charging capacity than the level 1 and 2 types do and can charge an EV considerably faster. Thus, they are used for commercial charging stations and are ideal for long-distance travel or when quick charging is essential. Compared with other levels, level 4 ultrafast chargers offer the lowest charging time, yet at the price of higher installation and capital cost investments 24 . Table  4 shows a schematic of charging ports and connectors manufactured according to different standards. According to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), most EV owners are expected to charge at home at night, so Level 1 and 2 chargers are the main options 31 .

EV charging modes

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) specifies 4 charging modes (IEC-62196 and 61851) for AC and DC charging systems, as shown in Table  5 32 . Mode 1 charging directly connects the electric vehicle to the normal power socket where the charging action is slow and can be used for charging electric scooters and bikes and may be unsafe for use. Owing to the increased power capabilities, Mode 2 demands special safety requirements between the electrical network and the EV. Typical usages for Mode 2 are residential use (up to 16 A) and industrial use (up to 32A). Mode 3, on the other hand, requires that the vehicle must be charged through a permanently connected power supply to the electrical network. The use of wall boxes, commercial charging points and all automatic charging systems in alternating current is a common practice where the car is charged in public places for both slow charging and fast charging. Finally, Mode 4 offers fast charging action through DC charging but at a higher cost.

EV penetration in a utility grid with V2G technology

A Lack of EV charging stations may impede EV development. Additionally, EV range anxiety (i.e. fear that an electric vehicle will not have enough battery charge to reach its destination) is aggravated by insufficient charging stations and lengthy charging times. To address this issue, the installation of EV charging stations must expand substantially, yet a new demand for electrical utility remains. Compared with overnight slow charging, fast and ultrafast chargers have some different characteristics and present greater implications on the grid, such as more voltage fluctuations, phase imbalances and voltage transients. Additionally, fast charging imposes more harmonics in the line current and harmonic contamination with higher-order harmonics because of the nonlinear behaviour of EV chargers. Moreover, additional impacts can affect distribution system component capacities, power loss, and grid stability 23 . Hence, for most daily charging events, the energy requirement may be met by overnight slow charging. In addition, slow charging features a longer charging duration and a larger distribution area, which facilitates easier planning and control by distribution system operators. By employing bidirectional battery chargers, it is possible to deliver energy in the reverse direction, i.e., from the EV batteries to the power grid, which is known as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode 33 , 34 . This feature facilitates communication between power generation and end-users, thus managing the flow of electricity to meet the fluctuating power demand of end-users. Additionally, this mode can also be utilized to support extensive renewable energy integration and to stabilize the power system 35 . With this developed technology, along with coordinated smart charging techniques, grid stability, resilience and flexibility are enhanced, and the functions of voltage and frequency regulation, load balancing and congestion management can be realized 36 . In addition, EV owners can achieve incentives by selling power to the grid, in addition to providing environmental and economic benefits. Nevertheless, some challenges and regulations should be addressed to encourage the expansion of this technology.

System components

Various EVs exist, such as fuel-cell cars, battery-electric cars, and plug-in hybrids. With plug-in hybrid technology, EVs can be operated conventionally or in electric mode. When V2G technology is applied, plug-in EVs (PEVs) require a network connection for power flow, control centers for regulating the charging and discharging processes, communication and a logical interface with the grid operator for signal sending and receiving, as well as an onboard instrumentation system for monitoring. Figure  3 illustrates V2G system components and how EVs and the grid interact. Generators generate electricity that is fed to consumers where EV charging stations can exist. With V2G technology, electricity can be returned to the grid. Grid operators at control centers can transmit control signals via many different methods, the simplest of which are over-the-air, wireless, direct internet links, or power line carriers. Signals can be sent directly to vehicles or received by fleet operators’ offices that manage individual vehicles through distributed power aggregators 36 .

V2G system components and power flow.

With topologies permitting bi-directional power flow, i.e. grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) modes, the two challenges of faster charging and providing ancillary services to the grid can be tackled. With such topologies, two operating modes are included as shown in Fig.  3 and explained below 11 .

a. Grid to Vehicle (G2V)

Typically, EV batteries function as a load when charging in grid-to-vehicle (G2V) mode from the electrical grid. The one-way G2V charging method increases the demand on the electrical system, leading to a potential risk of overloading and overheating power lines as well as distribution transformers 12 . Thus, the V2G added feature is developed not only to reduce the EV charging effects on grid but also to offer grid assistance in frequency and voltage regulation as well as load balancing.

b. Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

V2G technology with bi-directional charging stations, allows owners to charge their vehicles from grid and parked EVs can transform into power providers, because their energy storage systems permit two-way power flow 37 . Thus, EVs can act as portable distributed energy storage systems where during periods of low demand, the onboard battery is connected to the nearby power grid via proper communication equipment, enabling the car batteries to be fully charged and when the vehicle is not in use. On the other hand, the power is provided from EVs to the grid in response to peak load demands. This technology is evolving steadily, especially on the power electronic level of design. Numerous companies are striving to utilize EV batteries as a portable energy source, capable of handling electrical overloads or supplying buildings with power during periods when limited power generation is taking place 38 , 39 . Other bi-directional concepts, including home-to-vehicle (H2V) and vehicle-for-grid (V4G) systems exist. In addition, improved vehicle-to-home (V2H) mode was presented in 40 , 41 .

EV charging influence

Investigating the influence of EV charging involves analysing various aspects, such as the level of EV penetration, charging approaches, battery attributes, charging locations and durations, battery state-of-charge, EV fleet charging habits, pricing structures, and demand response methods. According to 42 , the influences of EV charging can be categorized into four main areas, as illustrated in Fig.  4 . EV owner perspective, EV manufacturers’ outlook, environmental aspects, and electrical grid impacts. From the standpoint of PEV owners, uncoordinated charging may lead to high charging expenses due to the correlation between PEV arrival times and peak power grid demand, which leads to increased electricity costs. Nevertheless, this drawback can be offset by advantages such as extended battery life and the guarantee of a fully charged vehicle at the time of departure. On the other hand, PEV manufacturers are primarily concerned with battery degradation, as they typically offer warranties for normal battery use under standard conditions. Smart charging, however, can accelerate battery degradation since it reduces the negative effects of charging time and state of charge (SOC) on battery degradation. As a result, PEV manufacturers tend to favour uncoordinated charging strategies. From an environmental standpoint, the use of renewable energy sources (RESs) for charging EVs enhances their overall environmental benefits but at the cost of more RES installations as well as energy storage systems, thus increasing the preference for coordinated smart charging. Finally, from the power grid perspective, uncoordinated charging may impact electricity generation, transmission, and distribution networks 17 . From an electricity generation standpoint, uncoordinated charging may have significant consequences, including capacity expansion issues and rising energy prices. For the transmission network, the influx of EVs may lead to network congestion and raise concerns about overall system reliability. On the low-voltage distribution network level, greater effects may be exhibited, such as overloads of lines and feeders, increased power losses, and power quality concerns. In contrast, V2G introduces several benefits to the grid, such as voltage and frequency regulation and load shaping.

Perspectives of the influence of EV charging.

Given that this work focuses primarily on examining the different impacts of EV in the utility distribution network, related research gaps and recommendations, the preceding section will predominantly concentrate on the technical impacts (problems imposed on the grid and their mitigation techniques, V2G benefits followed by technical challenges and recommendations drawn). Other impacts and challenges related to different aspects (regulatory, environmental, economic and social) are discussed in the fifth section.

Technical impacts of the integration of EVs into grid, related challenges and recommendations

Different technical impacts resulting from EV integration into the grid are thoroughly studied including problems and corresponding mitigation techniques as well as perspective benefits. Furthermore, related research challenges and potential measures are presented.

Technical problems of EV integration to grid and mitigation strategies

Utility companies encounter notable challenges because of the extensive electric vehicle integration on the distribution network, which disrupts the stability of the grid. The negative consequences stem from voltage level variations and imbalance, grid instability, excessive harmonics introduction and alteration of the load profile and equipment overloading, as indicated in Fig.  5 . The overabundance of EVs can lead to serious power quality issues, increased peak loads and challenges in terms of power regulation. Considerable research has been conducted to evaluate the consequences of severe electric vehicle charging, predominantly on the distribution network, since the most severe impacts can be exhibited at this level. Moreover, numerous hardware solutions and software techniques to mitigate these negative impacts have been introduced in the literature.

Negative technical impacts of EVs on the distribution electrical grid.

Voltage magnitude variation

Voltage magnitude variation is characterized as a increase or decrease in the root mean square of the instantaneous voltage values, across a specified time period and bandwidth. These variations are specified values assigned by PQ standards such as IEEE 1159 and IEC 61000-2-4. From the utility point of view, an EV can be viewed as a load with a concentration of charging points which leads to dips when many EVs are connected to the grid. Hence, heavy traffic and vehicle colliding with the utility pole tending the wire to touch, are all considered causes of voltage sags resulting from EV equipment typically near the point of use. Nearly all facilities experience voltage sags on an annual basis, ranging from minor fluctuations that wear out and deteriorate equipment to major fluctuations that force equipment and grid operation to become offline 43 , 44 . This can elevate the cost of line process restoration 45 . Several solutions to voltage level variation issues have been introduced in literature. This can be categorized as depicted in Fig.  6 .

Mitigation techniques for voltage magnitude variations resulting from excessive EV penetration.

Voltage magnitude mitigation techniques in power systems are broadly categorized into centralized and decentralized approaches. Centralized control strategies have enhanced control capabilities as they involve a single controller making decisions for the entire grid. In all cases, centralized control, as shown in Table  6 , provides the best voltage variation reduction and feeder voltages maintainability at nominal values with − 4% to + 2% tolerance (minimum value of 0.96 p.u and maximum value of 1.02 p.u). Thus, centralized approaches have improved voltage control capabilities and better mitigation of voltage instability. However, this comes at the cost of less reliability since in case of centralized controller failure, whole system control will fail. Moreover, it requires strong communication infrastructure and can be computationally expensive if implemented on large scale systems 54 . Decentralized approaches, on the other hand, divide the computational burden on multiple controllers, making them more reliable and suitable for large-scale integration 54 , yet with less voltage variations’ reduction capabilities in some cases. Thus, integrating centralized with decentralized methods can be a promising solution 57 .

Optimization and intelligent strategies are applicable for both centralized and decentralized systems for real-time voltage regulation 48 , 49 , 50 , 54 . Additionally, renewable energy-based voltage mitigation techniques can effectively provide voltage support which is essentially required to accommodate the growing demand on EVs by providing cheaper production and operating costs. However, the intermittent nature of RES can cause instability due to fluctuating generation-load balance, often resulting in power flow reversal and other power quality issues 50 , 58 . To mitigate these challenges, large-scale BESS are often employed for active and reactive power compensation and thus minimizing the risk of voltage collapse 47 . Furthermore, droop control combined with reactive power support have shown significant potential in reducing voltage variations 46 as well as applying coordinated virtual impedance control 51 , model predictive control 56 and Valley-filling charging 52 .

Voltage imbalance

High-capacity loads such as EVs, are typically connected to LV distribution causing three-phase voltage imbalances due to the charging and discharging action. These imbalances could lead to significant consequences such as: increased network congestion, increased peak load periods and harmonic distortions as well as noise generation due to unwanted pulsations leading to malfunction of protective relays. Besides, imbalances lead to more power losses, overheating to neutral lines, interference with power-line communication in addition to elevated overall power system operation and maintenance costs 59 . Several approaches have been proposed to tackle the adverse effects of voltage imbalances on the distribution grid. They can be typically categorized into four main groups. The first group implements Distribution Network Configuration which includes reconfiguration strategies based on solving multiobjective optimization problems such as feeder reconfiguration, phase swapping and load shifting techniques. Thus, they can reduce total power loss, imbalances and network reliability without procuring new equipment. The second group relies on mitigating the imbalance impact using compensation devices (equipment oversizing, passive and active compensation). Whereas the third group utilizes smart charging which can help in compensating both voltage fluctuations and imbalances 60 . Finally, the fourth group utilizes the usage of energy storage systems both in a centralized and decentralized manner to mitigate imbalance effects 61 . Figure  7 shows different voltage imbalance mitigation methods.

Voltage imbalance mitigation techniques.

a. Distribution network reconfiguration strategies

Distribution network reconfiguration (DNR) strategies are often employed within distribution networks combined with other approaches, such as optimal placement of distributed generation (DG) units, to minimize voltage imbalance effects simultaneously and reduce system losses and operating costs. Reconfiguration techniques can be categorized into two types: distribution feeder reconfiguration (DFR) and phase balancing 62 . DFR generally focuses on modifying the topological structure of the network, such as changing candidate normally open tie switches and sectionalizing switches; thus, it is normally achieved at the system level. The phase balancing technique, on the other hand, focuses on the feeder level and can be implemented in two ways: phase swapping and load shifting. Table  7 summarizes the most recent work regarding DNR.

b. Passive and active compensation strategies

As mentioned in 63 , passive approaches use capacitive compensation to address load imbalances. Conversely, the active approaches harness the capabilities of power electronic devices to inject active and reactive power, including line voltage regulators, reactive power compensator, distributed static synchronous compensator (DSTATCOM), dynamic voltage restorers (DVR), and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) to rectify voltage imbalances. In 64 , reactive power injection is realized via two-layer optimization strategy designed for loss minimization while optimally placing capacitors in imbalanced test feeders. Despite being a cost-effective solution, it suffers from a few drawbacks especially in addressing voltage imbalances in cases where single-phase solar PVs generate high power, leading to active power imbalances. Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVRs) are effective tools in addressing voltage disturbances by injecting series voltages, thus maintaining the magnitude and phase of load voltage 65 . Despite their benefits, DVR units are costly, and their performance may be affected by high-order harmonics present in the system 65 . The use of Unified Power Quality Conditioners (UPQCs) might be an alternative for mitigating both voltage and current issues 63 , however, their complexity and high cost may hinder their use. Alternatively, single-phase distributed energy resource inverters can compensate by injecting both active and reactive power without impacting the battery life or EV charging time. However, their efficiency with high imbalance levels is dependent on their power ratings and the number of installed units 63 . While DVRs, UPQCs, and various compensation strategies can effectively mitigate imbalances, limitations such as costs, complexity, and adaptability still hinder their usage.

c. Intelligent charging strategies

Smart charging enables EVs to recharge during the most cost-effective time intervals, typically when the energy demand is low. Thus, the electricity demand is optimized, and the voltage deviations are reduced, aiding in flattening the voltage profile. Although smart charging yields advantages for both power utilities and EV owners, it necessitates additional infrastructure such as smart charging chargers, a communication framework and a processing system as demonstrated in Fig.  8 17 . This is achieved using centralized or decentralized strategies to improve distribution system performance by introducing the concepts of controlled EV charging and discharging, scheduling time of utilization (ToU), and controlling EV charging or discharging rate.

Intelligent charging strategies 75 .

The smart charging of EVs significantly improves grid balance because of its ability to optimize energy distribution via real-time monitoring and management. This is achieved by integrating smart charging devices and allowing for dynamic responses to variable energy production and consumption and the number of online EVs 75 . Additionally, smart charging can mitigate voltage imbalance and neutral current overloading by coordinating EVs on the basis of the degree of grid imbalance 76 , 77 . The use of advanced control techniques and power electronic topologies in ultrafast charging stations additionally enhances the charging speed 78 ; however, these methods require high infrastructural investments. Moreover, since smart charging systems completely depend on constant communication, coordination problems are likely to arise 69 . Furthermore, cyberattacks and privacy protection concerns are elevated, highlighting the need for more security protocols for data integrity protection 75 . Finally, voltage imbalance may be greatly affected by the increasing penetration of variable distributed energy resources onto the grid, which necessitates the use of additional inverter-interfaced DERs and energy storage devices 79 .

d. Energy storage system (ESS) strategies

The declining battery storage prices make ESS strategies an appealing solution for addressing both over-voltages and voltage imbalance. Centralized storage devices connected at the feeder ends can alleviate over-voltages when coupled with modified three-phase damping control which can charge/discharge the battery storage system by injecting or absorbing phase currents 78 . Conventional capacitor battery systems, on the other hand, have limitations when linear voltages are balanced since they may suffer from potential resonance and switching over voltages. Conversely, BESS can compensate for negative- and zero-sequence currents and reactive power, thus improving the power quality of the distribution grids 80 . In addition, BESS optimal control strategies can be applied in conjunction with PV systems for residential owners. Moreover, decentralized control strategies provide optimal performance for reactive power and voltage unbalance control with minimal impact on the battery owner’s needs. These strategies ensure that charging energy storage devices can take place without violating voltage limits and interfering with utility goals 81 .

Grid Instability

Grid stability is defined as the ability of the system to respond to frequency, current, or voltage transient disturbances within an allowable margin of ± 5% from the rated values 82 . However, the connection of multiple high- fast charging stations to the grid makes it challenging to maintain regulated frequency and voltage at the point of common coupling. The growing presence of EVs on the grid network, especially with the use of fast charging stations, raises concerns about grid stability due to the significant amount of power drawn from the grid in the G2V mode, even with standard level-2 charging, often surpassing the typical peak demand of residential households 83 . Furthermore, EV owners tend to charge their vehicles after work, coinciding with the peak demand on the grid, resulting in a significant rise in peak system demand and posing more threats to grid stability. Grid instability can have notable impact on consumer services, existing infrastructural assets, as well as all network charging stations 84 . Improvements in grid stability can be approached via two schemes, as shown in Fig.  9 , either via power converter topologies 85 or through FACT compensation devices integrated with RES 86 .

Grid stability mitigation techniques 85 .

a. Power electronics based on single- and two-staged control

Power converters (in both single and two-stage topologies) provide powerful tools for voltage regulation and voltage and frequency control abilities which are useful in maintaining low voltage-network stability. One of the primary benefits of employing power electronic converters to solve stability issues is the power flow fast and accurate control, which is necessary with standalone microgrids and during transitions between grid-connected and islanded modes 87 . Advanced control techniques, such as adaptive Virtual Synchronous Generator (VSG) control, improve transient stability by promptly responding to power imbalances 88 . This adaptability is advantageous in systems with high-RES penetration due to increased voltage oscillations 89 . In 87 , 90 authors use a sliding mode-based control (MBC) with high adaptability to parameter variation in fast charger stations operation at reduced switching losses, yet with high computational requirements. The filter-based approach introduced in 91 , 92 uses a control strategy based on hysteresis and voltage-oriented control for circulating current reduction and reactive power support. However, this method suffers from high control complexity. Moreover, the integration of power electronic topologies, such as DC-DC converters and multiport partial power processing converters (PPPC), in ultra-fast EV charging stations, allows higher power capacity operation and ensures compliance with grid connection standards 93 . However, the introduction of inertia support through VSG can induce power oscillations, which may lead to slower system’s response speed and reduced sensitivity to external disturbances 89 , 94 . While advanced control methods can adaptively change inertia and damping ratios to improve performance, they require precise tuning and can be challenging to implement effectively in actual real-life scenarios 94 . In summary, while power electronic control has several advantages in enhancing grid’s stability, it also presents challenges related to system complexity, tuning requirements, and potential adverse dynamics due to excessive virtual inertia. These factors must be carefully balanced to optimize the functionality and ensure reliability EV adoption and penetration.

b. FACT compensation

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTs) are powerful devices that can offer a wide range of network support functions, nevertheless power system stability. Table  8 summarizes the most recent work for FACTs-based compensation topologies to solve EV to grid integration problems where D-STATCOM was applied in 95 , 96 UPFC in 97 , 98 , SVC in 99 and SSSC in 100 . In 101 , the efficiency of different FACTS devices (STATCOM, SVC, CSC and SSSC) were compared for voltage-stability where STATCOM was proven to be more effective than SVC and SSSC. FACTS were efficient in reducing the settling times and damping power oscillations when optimally tuned using algorithms like the Quasi-Oppositional Differential Search Algorithm (QODSA) in 99 or Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control (LADRC) 96 . The use of advanced optimization-based techniques has also demonstrated superiority in improving transient stability and reducing errors 97 , 98 , 100 . Moreover 95 , 99 , 101 , investigated how FACTs compensation with DG/RES integration can affect network stability and enhance power supply reliability. However, the integration of EVs and RES introduces complexities especially for real-time stability assessments, which requires complex control for effective operation 101 . Besides, the existence of different types of RES requires sometimes tailored solutions to disturbances, making the solution more complex 101 . Despite these technical advancements, limitations and operational challenges remain, particularly with respect to real-time stability control. Thus, coordinated actions among various controllable devices are needed to maintain optimal voltage profiles and system stability 101 .

Overloading

A low-voltage grid cannot be responsive if all EV owners constantly and without pattern charge their vehicles. Owing to simultaneous or uncoordinated charging, regional demand profiles may shift significantly. This can have a significant effect on local peak demand, thus overloading the network 2 . Overloading distribution network equipment such as transformers and cables results in their overstressing, shortening their lifespans, and requiring infrastructure upgrades. One of the most important and costly pieces of equipment in a power system is power transformers. Hence, correct transformer loading has been a key concern for power system operation. Different overloading mitigation strategies are introduced in literature which can be categorized into (a) Network and feeder reconfiguration plans, (b) RES utilization, and (c) Demand response and load shaping.

Investigating the EV penetration impact on distribution system overloading has been addressed in several case-studies in literature as illustrated in Table  9 . It is concluded that there is a direct relationship between EV penetration and increases in loading conditions and peak demands. EV growth without proper charging coordination may cause overloading, increase peak capacity, grid losses and power grid stress during peak hours. Moreover, peak power capacity is a limiting factor over network infrastructure leading to stresses on infrastructure and accelerated degradation of network and equipment. This is concluded from case studies in California and Sweden, where increased peak capacity due to EV penetration resulted in stresses on infrastructure, leading to problematic issues 102 , 103 . This is also evidenced by a study in the USA, which additionally indicated that accelerated power transformers aged, particularly during peak hours 104 ; however, smart and coordinated charging is important for peak demand reduction. This is evidenced by a study in Britain, where smart charging reduced peak demand 105 , and by studies in the USA, which indicate that charging management reduces power grid stress during peak hours 106 and can significantly reduce transformer overloading 104 . Moreover, in Egypt, applying the FL-based valley filling approach prevents peak demand surplus 107 , 108 , whereas in Maldives, coordinated charging can reduce feeder loading 108 . In Brazil ToU and Real-Time Pricing (RTP) could reduce peak demand 109 while in France, tariff-based dynamic smart charging systems proved their usefulness 110 . Meanwhile, one major challenge of EV growth in many countries is the need for further development of EV charging infrastructure which still seen as a potential barrier to further adoption. In Egypt and Maldives, the penetration level of electric vehicles is limited adoption due to infrastructural and economic challenges 107 , 108 . Moreover, in France, increasing the current ratio of EVs to charging points is needed 110 .

In conclusion, studies collectively suggest that implementing smart coordinated charging solutions may, in fact, increase the grid capacity and reduce power losses and grid stress. Moreover, the availability of public and private charging stations as well as the upgrading of infrastructure assets and equipment are recommended since they significantly promote higher EV adoption rates.

One of the challenges associated with EV battery charging is the potential high harmonic currents associated with converting the voltage of an AC power system to the DC voltage of an EV battery. Harmonic currents increase the losses and reduce the life expectancy of distribution components such as capacitors and transformers. The supply of harmonic current also creates harmonic voltages in the distribution network which can affect the power system’s loads and therefore must be maintained within specific standards. The majority of international standardization organizations have developed power quality standards which specify limits to harmonic pollution and its various effects, such as voltage swells and flickering. IEC 61000 and IEEE 519 are two of the most popular standards. As the number of EVs on the road increases, new standards to reduce harmonic pollution caused by EVs are introduced. IEC 61851, which is related to onboard chargers, is one of these forthcoming standards 111 .

The harmonic profiles of EVs include significant content of the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonic components, which causes increased power losses and premature transformer failures; hence, they need to be mitigated 112 , 113 . In general, addressing harmonic impacts on distribution networks can be achieved via several harmonics’ mitigation strategies, as summarized in Table  10 . This includes the utilization of hardware solutions such as power conditioners and filters (passive and active), software harmonic compensation approaches, or the integration of RES inverters 113 . Hardware solutions can achieve tremendous reductions in THD 114 , 115 . Furthermore, the use of PV inverters as active filters is an effective approach. This strategy improves the power quality by leveraging the switching frequency of PV inverters to compensate for higher-order harmonics 116 . Although hardware solutions and the integration of PV inverters can improve voltage quality and mitigate the impacts of harmonic currents, they require high initial investment and increase system size, cost and implementation complexity. Thus, the use of advanced optimization algorithms for effective harmonic compensation is a reasonable alternative 112 , 117 , 118 but at the cost of increasing control complexity. Conclusively, while the implementation of different harmonics-mitigation methods can be resource intensive and complicated, their ability to address power quality issues makes them necessary components in smart grid systems.

Beneficial technical aspects of V2G technology in electric grids

Despite the negative impacts exhibited by the G2V mode of operation, numerous studies have demonstrated that efficient managing of EV charging can enhance power system efficiency, decrease operational expenses, and reduce the curtailment of RESs, particularly with the V2G feature. In V2G mode, charging can be switched to off-peak hours when electricity is less expensive or even negative. Revenues can also be raised by selling electricity to the grid at times of high demand for ancillary services or during peak hours. Additionally, V2G can help renewable energy integration by absorbing excess generation from variable sources and increase reliability by offering backup power in the event of grid disruptions or emergencies. Furthermore, controlled EV discharging offers several advantages such as offering reactive power assistance, regulating voltage and short-term frequency, reducing peak loads and load balancing as well as improving grid stability and harmonic filtering 117 . Plug in EVs (PEVs) and their battery chargers can be used for fast-responsive storage or as a distributed energy resource as EVs become increasingly integrated into the electrical grid 119 . In summary, bidirectional isolated chargers for EVs, via a proper control strategy, have the ability to offer auxiliary services as shown in Fig.  10 120 , 121 and explained as follows:

Potential V2G services.

Virtual power plant (VPP)

Virtual Power Plants (VPPs) are cloud-based distributed energy systems that interconnect energy generations and energy storage units within a complex power plant, enabling seamless energy management. The integration of EVs into VPPs plays a crucial role in stabilizing electricity demand. This is achieved through continuous monitoring, analysis, optimization, and trading of their energy output to counterbalance fluctuations in electricity generation from renewable energy resources. Small-scale energy facilities, on their own, lack the capacity to offer balancing services, but a VPP can effectively mimic the role of a large central power plant, providing similar services and ensuring redundancy 122 , 123 .

Frequency regulation and active power control

Power system frequency regulation is an important indicator of active power supply and demand balance. Deviating from the specified frequency limits can lead to either load shedding during under frequency events or the disconnection of generation units in case of over frequency. Given EVs’ faster response, compared to conventional generation units, strategically managing EVs’ batteries charging and discharging presents a viable option for maintaining the power system frequency. This can be achieved via a centralized or distributed approach as shown in Fig.  11 . Several dispatching strategies have been presented to assess the effectiveness of EV in their involvement in secondary frequency regulation, which can be typically divided into frequency-aware and economic-aware aspects as highlighted in 124 and summarized in Table  11 . The former primarily focuses on frequency stabilizing strategies (in both distributed and centralized modes), whereas the latter promotes the use of EVs for frequency regulation, increasing the benefits for both owners and aggregates.

Frequency support systems ( a ) distributed and ( b ) centralized frequency structure.

Voltage regulation and reactive power support

Recently, a significant area of research has explored the ability of EVs to offer voltage and reactive power support when operating in V2G mode. In 133 , a unified strategy is proposed for voltage and frequency regulation within urban power grids by rapidly adjusting EVs charging or discharging power, in case of any deviation, particularly when the vehicles are parked. A comprehensive control approach for a bidirectional isolated EV charger, with the ability to offer auxiliary services, was suggested in 121 . This method focuses on off-board three-phase smart chargers for active and reactive power injection for grid support during voltage and frequency fluctuations. Using V2G technology through a network of charging stations, a hierarchical bi-directional aggregation algorithm was suggested in 134 for the integration of EVs in the smart grid. By maximizing EV charging and discharging functionalities, the suggested algorithm predicts the power consumption and executes Day-Ahead load scheduling, thus stabilizing voltage and frequency. In 135 , an architecture for the cooperation between EV-sharing operators and Distribution System Operators was suggested for the provision of Ancillary Service in EVs. The designed system offers primary frequency control in a transmission grid and voltage amplitude regulation in a distribution grid. Finally, the authors in 136 established a two-tiered dynamic gaming approach involving battery charging and swapping stations along with EVs to assist in grid node voltage regulation.

Peak shaving

The total grid system is under more stress as demand (load) increases; thus, “peak shaving” benefits the grid operator, end users, and environment in addition to providing an obvious economic advantage. This involves reducing power consumption to prevent spikes or deriving extra electric power from local power sources, such as a rooftop photovoltaic (PV) system, batteries or bidirectional electric vehicles. Peak shaving techniques produce an effective demand profile, which aids in improving system efficiency by enhancing power quality and lowering costs. However, the effectiveness of peak shaving depends critically on the quantity of EVs involved in the grid integration process. Efficient administration and optimization of the systems may also be impacted by the difficulty of coordinating charging and discharging of many EVs 137 . Authors in 138 investigated into how the electricity and transport systems interact during concurrent peak times. Commuters who choose to discharge receive benefits but pay more for delays and change their departure time. Thus, a decision tree for the power system is designed to set the optimum discharge incentive and derive the necessary condition of the “win–win–win” scenario for EV drivers, power, and transport systems. Conclusively, lowering electricity costs in the form of rewards, incentives and financial compensation is essential in encouraging customers to take a positive step toward V2G technology.

Spinning reserves

The spinning reserve is the surplus capacity that may compensate for power shortages or frequency drops within a given specific time frame. Notably, “spinning reserve” is another auxiliary function that V2G technology may provide. However, having a sufficient number of EVs that are linked to the grid and have enough energy stored in their batteries to act as a spinning reserve is once again a difficulty 139 . However, in 140 , three different scenarios were considered: with V2G, without V2G, and with V2G plus a wind farm, where the latter greatly increased the grid’s reserve potential.

Alleviating grid congestion

When the amount of electricity consumed or the load on the grid increases, grid overload may occur, resulting in bottlenecks that prevent electricity from reaching consumer conditions, referred to as “grid congestion” 141 , 142 . This additional demand for energy would have to be met by the reserve power plant, which may result in higher costs and even higher demand at peak hours 142 . Moreover, transmission lines and system equipment may need to be upgraded to withstand this overload, thus causing a further increase in electricity costs. By using the energy from standby EVs, V2G can provide a solution for grid congestion, avoiding the need for pricey grid infrastructure changes. In 142 , a method in which power distribution factors (DFs) are employed to calculate how much energy a specific EV should contribute to reducing congestion was suggested. Nevertheless, with strong PEV penetration, uncoordinated charging of PEVs causes congestion. Thus, this issue was addressed in 143 , where a novel management method was proposed, and the SOC for PEV batteries was predicted via the gradient boosting regression tree method for optimal coordination of PEV charging to prevent congestion issues.

Resilient and sustainable energy storage

The increased integration of RES into the power grid has led to intermittent energy production. When the amount of electricity produced by RESs outweighs the demand, the excess electricity can cause an imbalance in the system. Because of system congestion and mismatched supply and demand, RES curtailment, i.e. reduction of RES power production, is frequently utilized 144 . Although this act maintains grid stability, it raises operational costs of these RESs and reduces their efficiency. Hence, energy storage solutions play a crucial role in bridging this gap by storing excess energy when demand is low and delivering it when demand increases. If RESs excess power is used to fuel EVs, as shown in Fig.  12 , this would be a very effective approach to store this extra power, thus enhancing grid resilience. V2G technology has the potential to provide a sustainable and resilient energy storage solution, thus V2G regulations that reduce RE curtailment are seen favorable 145 . Additionally, reducing curtailment can encourage investors to fund future renewable energy projects 146 .

EVs storage capability for RESs power 147 .

Technical challenges and research gaps

With the previously discussed benefits of EVs especially with smart V2G charging, a great effort is put towards closing knowledge gaps and tackling research challenges facing the adoption of this technology on a large-scale as discussed in this section.

EV battery handling

For EV battery manufacturing, the commonly used raw materials include but are not limited to lithium-ion, nickel, cobalt, copper, and graphite. In 148 , it was concluded that both Lead-acid and NiMH battery-based are uneconomical to implement in V2G techniques. However, to improve the EV battery lifetime and reduce its degradation, the following perspectives should be considered 12 , 13 .

Since batteries are the most critical component in V2G technology, developing relatively affordable and safe battery energy storage systems (without overheating issues), such as lithium-ion batteries, is one of the market perspectives of EVs 19 .

The EV battery life cycle is analysed by examining the battery capacity to provide the necessary torque to run the EV wheels and to provide adequate power back to the distribution grid in 149 . The 60 kWh Li-ion batteries launched for second-generation EVs should feature a state of health above ~ 75% to sufficiently run the EV. These batteries can back almost 350–500 km drive range for approximately 14–20 years. Hence, second-generation EV batteries are adequate for EV and V2G implementation and seldom require replacement. However, the studied lithium-ion battery lifetime model can be extended to estimate the battery degradation level as the temperature increases, the uncontrolled state of charge, the unscheduled battery discharge/charge cycle, and the depth of discharge, as well as to estimate the associated increase in EV charging and energy/power fade. Conclusively, one of the main challenges for EV penetration is its limited driving range; thus, EV battery deployment must be precisely planned to realize both transportation and power system objectives and needs.

The long-term operation of V2G EVs with high battery capacity increases the depth of battery discharge and stresses the powertrain. During bidirectional power flow between the vehicle and grid, EV charging and discharge should be optimally controlled, or the battery lifetime and capacity level should degrade. Compared with other typical charging methods, optimized charging control makes the battery last longer for a regular EV run.

Thus, in the V2G technique, multiple object optimization algorithms should be considered to properly schedule the EV fleet to reduce battery degradation and make the system more economical.

Employing climate control methods and improving the included ventilator system is an appealing research point since this helps to improve the battery lifetime of EVs; thus, expanding the driving range can be improved 150

High-frequency current peaks, which are supplied during motor runs, should be mitigated since they can result in fast battery degradation 151 . To address this issue, the application of supercapacitors along with EV batteries can be promising 152 .

Improvements in battery technology should be expanded to deliver a better range and increase the safety, flexibility, and efficiency of EV technology. This can be achieved by developing unique anode materials or electrolytes for Li batteries, in addition to creating solid-state batteries and batteries that replace Li ions with Na or K ions to improve their safety, energy storage, and efficiency 14 . All these developments in the production of organic Li batteries, along with safe repurposing and recycling of Li batteries, can make EV technology greener, cleaner, more robust, affordable, and safe.

Charging/discharging of EVs batteries

The Smart and coordinated charging and discharging of EV batteries, featuring V2G technology, is crucial for the efficient operation of EVs and for reducing the battery degradation time as well as minimizing the previously discussed negative impacts resulting from EV excessive integration to grid. This is done using power-electronic battery chargers associated with charging control techniques which in turn raises several interesting topics that should be considered 15 , 18 .

EV Battery chargers

The EV battery charger is a power electronic converter that offers a bidirectional interface between the EV and the grid to charge the EV battery with the required capacity or feeds the power back to the utility, following all power regulations and standards. Fast power transfer with minimal losses is essential in V2G technology. Therefore, research related to EV chargers should focus on developing topologies that handle the complexity of modern power with the following capabilities 15 , 153 .

Robust and high-efficiency topologies with a bidirectional power flow capability and fast charging feature

Bidirectional converter topologies must be effective in terms of the power factor, power consumption, number of filters, number of switches, and THD.

The enhanced efficiency of advanced converter materials is a promising topic where wide bandgap (WBG) devices made of SiC (silicon carbide) and GaN (gallium nitride) are attracting attention. This is related to the fact that they operate at high frequencies and temperatures with lower semiconductor losses, thus achieving a reduced converter size and high power density 15 , 153 .

Coordinated charging/discharging control

The effective coordinated control of power electronic converters assists in supporting the bidirectional power flow between the vehicles and the utility grid, handling grid-integration requirements and standards as well as minimizing the detrimental impacts from the integration of EVs. Thus, it is necessary to develop optimal EV charging/discharging techniques that incorporate multi-stack optimization to maintain a charge–discharge equilibrium, reduce grid stress, improve frequency regulation, and reduce costs as well as enhancing battery lifetime 19 , 36 .

Planning of public charging infrastructure

Currently, the greatest barrier preventing V2G from expanding is the lack of EV charging stations. Hence, modifying existing networks and upgrading them to accommodate electric vehicles is mandatory, as is adopting new large-scale charging stations in the near future, streets, highways, workplaces, shopping centers, etc. Hence, many studies should be conducted in this area to introduce upgrading options and plan future infrastructure, considering the optimal location and capacity planning of EV chargers and grid integration concurrently 154 . Moreover, for successful implementation of a completely modernized V2G charging infrastructure, it should be equipped with adequate smart devices to be user friendly and reduce customers’ range anxiety. In addition, fast charging and high-power facilities can be an advancement in V2G systems 153 . Notably, EV charging stations couple both the utility system and the transportation system; therefore, both must be taken into account during EV charging infrastructure planning. Nevertheless, research in this area is challenging since EV infrastructure planning studies require real data from both the transportation sector and power system, which varies across countries 18 .

Coordination between transmission and distribution systems’ operators for providing EV services

As previously discussed, EVs can provide many local and system-wide services to different power system parties (i.e., transmission system operator (TSO), transmission system operators (DSO), and loads such as buildings or homes). However, system-wide services offered by EVs may affect the distribution system at which they are connected causing conflict of interests between TSO and DSO. For example, the frequency regulation TSO service offered by EVs requires continuous charging and discharging operations which can result in overloading of distribution network components, phase unbalance, etc. Hence, coordination between TSO and DSO is important to guarantee reliable and cost-effective services with minimal impact on the distribution system. However, this issue has rarely been studied in literature and should be considered in future research 18 .

Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication system

A vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication system is a connected mobility concept in which the EV and any other systems inside and outside the vehicle are linked to the internet. This allows a vehicle to communicate with different entities though specific technologies such as V2I (vehicle-to-infrastructure), V2N (vehicle-to-network), V2V (vehicle-to-vehicle), V2P (vehicle-to-pedestrian), and V2D (vehicle-to-device). This mobility technology should be widely adopted because of its numerous benefits 16 .

This increases operation and efficiency in power grids.

By reducing traffic congestion (by introducing a V2V facility in 20% of vehicles), traffic congestion can be reduced by 30%).

This increases EV users’ satisfaction and revenue (by accessing traffic jam conditions and charging prices at different stations through V2X, users can choose the best possible option for them at any time).

Improving the driving experience and increasing passenger safety and comfort.

Overcoming the communication barrier of autonomous vehicle technology has led to rapid development in which a decision can be made by the vehicle itself without the help of a user.

Communication protocols and cyber protection

The successful implementation of V2G requires a reliable, real-time communication system between control centers, aggregators and EVs to secure the transfer of information across the power grid, EV supply equipment, charging infrastructure, and end-users. The aggregator sends data about the EVs at station, station location, charging details, power level, etc. to the control center which takes the accurate control decisions and sends the charging rate and time as well as power commands back to the aggregator which in turn sends charging details and power commands to EVs 15 . Considering this large amount of information to be transmitted as well as EVs mobility and fast response requirements, V2G communication demands efficient communication protocols and fast authentication and encryption/decryption which is still a challenging aspect that needs to be questioned.

Figure  13 shows the most common communication protocol architecture of the EV-charging infrastructure which involves various protocols designed to assure maximum compatibility and performance across all EV ecosystem. It is clear that the electric mobility system is categorized into different layers to efficiently manage all cyber-physical aspects of EV charging. Accordingly, charging levels can be divided into two levels of integration, (a) between charging point and energy suppliers, and (b) between EV and charging point. Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) and Open Automated Demand Response (OpenADR) are the most used standards in practice used for integrating charging points with energy providers. OCPP allows communication between charging stations and centralized management systems, thus enabling remote monitoring and charging control. OpenADR, on the other hand, allows for demand-response actions that can help in grid load balancing and ensures cross-domain information exchange with grid management system 111 , 155 . In addition to OCPP and OpenADR, IEC 61,850 allows seamless communication and compatibility in power utility automation and DERs control. For communication between charging stations and EVs, standards such as ISO/IEC 15,118 and IEC 61,851 support smart charging and V2G functionalities and facilitate the use of EVs as temporary energy storage units for grid support 111 , 155 .

Protocol architecture for the EV-charging infrastructure.

Roaming protocols are important in assuring connectivity between different charging networks and service providers 111 , 155 . Roaming allows EV users to use different service providers to access charging stations without the need for multiple subscriptions. Open Clearing House Protocol (OCHP), and Open InterCharge Protocol (OICP) are examples of commercially used roaming protocols that provide a standardized framework for data exchange, pricing information, and authentication. Despite the increasing efforts of policymakers and regulators to adopt the use of open standards, the market remains fragmented with various incompatible roaming protocols thus hindering the EV integration and widespread adoption of BEVs 106 .

Moreover, another important aspect in this area should be considered which is the required protection in V2G systems against cyber penetration and threats associated with blockchain, AI, and IoT connectivity 12 . To prevent cyber security concerns, a mutual, reciprocal authentication technique can be developed in which the EVs, connected to the aggregator, are to be registered and checked for authenticity before initiating the charging/discharging operation. Moreover, EVs and aggregators can be designed with unique identification secret keys to filter out any malicious data flow across the network. This will ensure the confidentiality of user information, charging/discharging routines, etc.

Technical key-findings, challenges and recommendations for EV penetration

The previously discussed technical impacts of EV integration into grids are summarized, as are challenges limiting their adoption growth, as shown in Table  12 . Then, relationships between key findings and research gaps are identified, and recommendations are drawn to enhance EV performance, mitigate their limitations and promote their penetration in the grid.

Other impacts (regulatory/economic/social/environmental), related challenges and recommendations

To study other aspects rising from EV penetration into the grid, this section presents other impacts that are crosslinked together including regulatory (political), economic, social and environmental ones in addition to their respective challenges, research gaps and potential recommendations as summarized in Tables  13 , 14 , 15 and 16 respectively.

Regulatory/governmental aspect

Many studies have investigated the influence of this impact and its future directions towards EV adoption involving the following points:

Government policies and incentives

Government policies and initiatives, including different types of regulations and incentives such as standardization, tax credits, and subsidies, have been found to significantly increase EV adoption 22 . For a seamless transition to e-mobility, the IEA policy document on global V2G offers outlines of existing policies, along with rules and recommendations 156 .

Existing policies among many countries include the following 15 :

Incentives and regulations implemented to promote the adoption of EVs and smart charging.

Incentives for charging infrastructure development linked to renewables.

Special tariff structures for the colocation of EVs and renewables.

However, to improve V2G implementation and increase its penetration with minimal challenges, the following recommended policies and actions should be discussed and considered 36 , 154 .

A uniform national technical standard in the field of V2G should be established to facilitate development and implementation and standardize the interconnection process as much as possible.

Offering tax reductions and electricity cost discounts to EVs on the basis of aggregator policies for participating in V2G is one of the most motivational strategies and provides a possible solution to future challenges 153

A climate change tax credit, which is based on alternative fuel refueling property, should be expanded to cover V2G.

Overall, these findings suggest that government policies and incentives can play crucial roles in supporting the EV market.

Infrastructure availability and quality

Several studies analyzed the impact of infrastructure availability and quality on EV market growth and V2G adoption where it was noted that areas with more accessible charging stations had higher EV adoption rates. However, upgrading the electricity grid to handle increased EV demand and house advanced V2G technology was crucial for promoting EV penetration 22 Thus, the following is recommended by IEA 156 .

States and local governments should be encouraged to deploy V2G and a road map to be established for making infrastructure planning processes at a national level with the help of cross disciplinary groups.

Charging scheduling algorithms must be designed and standardized according to operation levels.

Standardization of integration to RES to tackle their intermittent scalability and economic feasibility

Work is required in V2G modeling, capacity forecasting and transient and steady-state performance analysis as well as analyzing V2G grid impacts on the grid and disseminating the results to the wider community.

Collaboration and partnership with corporations and stakeholders

Establishing agreements and collaborations between the government and private organizations can greatly support EV market growth by achieving the following 22 , 157 , 158 .

Various challenges, including high upfront costs, a lack of charging infrastructure, and consumer awareness, are addressed.

Share resources and expertise to accelerate the transition to electric mobility.

Offer business model innovation and alternative financing options for promoting EV adoption.

Corporate social responsibility can motivate organizations to promote EV adoption as part of their sustainability goals by offering incentives to employees and providing education and training to increase employee familiarity with EVs.

Rural versus nonrural locations

Location can also play a role in EV adoption where users in urban areas may have better access to charging stations and may be more likely to adopt EVs than rural users 159 The latter may face limited access to charging infrastructure which sets a challenging barrier for EV penetration in rural areas. Therefore, governments and policymakers can address this by expanding charging infrastructure in rural areas and incentivizing rural users to adopt EVs.

Economic aspects

Hereby, the economic impacts affecting EV market growth, as discussed in literature, are highlighted in addition to some recommendations to prompt their market growth and acceptance.

According to the IEA, there are approximately 10 million EVs on the road globally. The worldwide V2G market size was valued at US$ 1.77 billion in 2021 and is predicted to reach approximately US$ 17.43 billion by the year 2027. As of 2023, China leads with the most publicly accessible EV chargers of approximately 2.7 million chargers, followed by the USA and Netherlands. Norway, Iceland and Sweden, on the other hand, have the highest EV market share. These nations are facing EV adoption due to their strong governmental incentives, extensive charging infrastructure, and public policies targeted at reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainable transportation and e-mobility 1 .

Economic acceptance

Compared with conventional vehicles, EVs with grid integration featuring a modified charging structure can be more expensive due to high initial and investment costs (more complex implementation and costly bidirectional chargers and communication systems) 15 . However, subsidies and tax rebates are intended to close the price gap between traditional automobiles and EVs.

The influence of economic factors (such as governmental subsidies, manufacturers’ cash incentives, total cost of ownership (TCO), fuel costs and battery prices) on EV customers should be carefully addressed and analysed for EV economic acceptance 160 . Compared with traditional EVs, which are noticeable in regions with high fossil fuel taxes and low electricity prices, such as Norway, EVs may offer potential cost reductions in operations and emissions 161 . Additionally, subsidies play a vital role in encouraging BEVs, which in turn boosts economic activity 160 . EV transition creates new business opportunities in the market, which can drive economic growth through new job creation 12 . Despite the long-term savings of EVs, their TCO plays an important role in consumer decision-making since the initial cost of EVs presents a significant barrier to their adoption 161 , especially in countries and governments with fewer subsidies and incentive policies. Thus, increasing research and studies to simplify the implementation of V2G technology, reduce its initial and running costs, decrease the cost of EV batteries and their degradation time, and achieve the development of an EV charging infrastructure are important. In conclusion, the complex relationships among economic aspects, governmental policies, consumer behaviour, and market dynamics strongly shape the adoption of EVs.

V2G commercialization

EV-owner-based studies reveal that there are other potential barriers to V2G adoption, the most important of which are consumer unawareness of grid integration benefits and concerns about V2G programs in terms of privacy, cost and loss of control 36 . Thus, to improve V2G commercialization, a number of issues should be addressed 15 .

Development of economic viability metrics and models for charging station infrastructure, which is particularly challenging in regions marked by fluctuating energy costs and evolving market dynamics

Implementing new e-trading schemes and enabling the incorporation of wind and solar power as well as setting special tariff structures for the colocation of EVs and renewables to increase the revenue of EV owners from V2G.

Promoting proper awareness among EV owners and providing sufficient benefits to promote V2G technology.

Social aspects

Currently, communities are paying attention to the potential opportunities offered by EVs, especially with V2G technology, by encouraging the adoption of EVs by community residents and businesses and even transitioning community-owned vehicles to EVs. This would serve the community in many social aspects as follows:

Public health: Most school buses and public transportation run on diesel fuel, which emits harmful gases that affect brain development and contribute to asthma and cancer. Every school day, 20 million children are exposed to harmful fumes from school buses 162 ; thus, electrification is particularly appealing with these types of vehicles to enhance community public health.

Fuel and operating cost savings: Another advantage to the community is the ability of EVs to meet budget constraints and challenges. Compared with gasoline or diesel fuel expenses, vehicle fuel expenses can be lowered by 50% or less because electricity costs per energy unit are lower at higher efficiency. Additionally, operating expenses such as those related to insurance, tires, registration, and maintenance are typically 25% lower than those of their conventional counterparts 163

Job creation: The growth of V2G technology creates new job opportunities where the demand for skilled workers to install, maintain, and operate V2G-enabled charging stations increases.

However, some social challenges still exist that should be addressed, and some actions should be recommended and standardized when implementing V2G programs to encourage EV drivers to participate.

Social acceptance and perceptions of EVs

Despite the previously discussed benefits, critical areas that require deeper investigation to accelerate EV adoption and integration into society 2 . The high upfront costs of EVs and insufficient charging infrastructure may exclude lower-income and rural communities, leading to social inequalities 164 . Therefore, developing affordable EV models by manufacturers, adapting financial incentives and flexible governmental policies on the basis of income levels should be adapted worldwide to different economic backgrounds to reduce the cost of EV ownership, ensure equitable growth and promote EV adoption. Other factors influencing the public acceptance and adoption rates of EVs include those related to changes in transportation habits, concerns about charging availability, and the range of anxiety. Thus, developing a robust network of charging stations is essential to alleviate range anxiety and accelerate transport electrification 2 .

Awareness and knowledge of the benefits of EVs

Awareness of the benefits of EVs is an essential factor for increasing their market growth. Thus, training, educational programs and public campaigns are effective in increasing consumers’ familiarity with EV technology, increasing their social acceptance, removing any barriers to EV adoption and enabling the transition to a sustainable mobility and transportation system 2 , 22 . Moreover, customers who respect and value environmental attitudes and ecological sustainability are more likely to consider it a more environmentally friendly alternative. Therefore, awareness campaigns can increase this goal by highlighting the environmental benefits of EVs.

Marketing and advertising

Marketing and advertising could help shape stakeholders’ perceptions of the importance of financial investments in the EV context and V2G technology and stimulate consumers in its adoption. This implies the use of communication strategies, marketing organizations and advertising campaigns to generate new businesses for EV products, services and value 22 .

Environmental aspect

Electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles are paving the way toward transportation decarbonization since they are quieter, cleaner, and more efficient than gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles are 165 . Lacking tailpipes, EVs can directly eliminate harmful pollutant emissions, including particulates, ozone, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides. Hence, in the transportation sector, replacing diesel trucks, buses, vans and passenger vehicles with EVs presents a promising opportunity for reducing pollutant exposure in communities and, in turn, enhancing public health. Although EVs present a promising solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change, their adoption faces several environmental challenges, and related recommendations are suggested in Table  16 as follows:

Promotion of sustainable and clean transportation

In addition to being a sustainable, environmentally friendly alternative, the replacement of fossil fuel vehicles with EVs will shift the demand from crude oil to electricity and batteries. This can enhance energy security by lessening reliance on fossil fuel, which in turn, can increase in the stability of energy prices 166 . The latter can be an appealing factor to grab consumers’ attention towards this clean option. Another influencing factor on consumers’ intention to use electric vehicles is that greater EV penetration can help directly reduce the costs related to health problems associated with air pollution caused by fuel-based vehicles 167 . Hence, this will serve well for sustainable development goals, sdg3: good health and well-being and sdg7: affordable and clean energy 3 .

Accordingly, governments, especially in uncultured communities, are encouraged to promote environmentally friendly mobility through awareness campaigns and consumer education on the previously discussed environmental benefits of EVs and to develop strategies to encourage consumers’ social responsibility and green behaviour 2 . Moreover, governments are advised to increase the fuel oil tax and implement taxes on high-emission vehicles while offering other incentives for low-emission EVs to promote their relative competitiveness 168 .

EVs’ battery production and disposal

Despite the environmental benefits offered by EVs and V2G technology, with high penetration of EVs, the demand for batteries is increasing, thus environmental concerns can arise and should be studied 15 . This can be related to the process of batteries production and disposal. Regarding the widely used lithium-ion batteries, Li extraction and separation involves a lot of chemical procedures that are dangerous to the environment and can lead to health hazards. Moreover, materials used in EV batteries are challenging to recycle and careless disposal of these batteries can be toxic and may even lead to fire hazards 13 .

Hence, it is essential to have a well-defined, environment-friendly end-of-life (EOL) strategy for the batteries along with considering second-life batteries reusing which can contribute to better energy security 169 . Moreover, developments in the production of organic Li-batteries, along with safe repurposing and recycling of Li-batteries can make EV-technology greener, cleaner and more robust, affordable, and safe. Future research should focus on technical aspects and long-term impacts of battery composition, disposal and recycling to determine the overall environmental impact of EVs 169 .

Divided opinions

One major concern is the pollution generated in battery production, coupled with the insufficient infrastructural capacity for recycling used batteries, leading to divided opinions on the environmental merits of EVs 2 . Despite the potential for EVs to reduce CO2 emissions 168 , the environmental benefits are often doubted by consumers, who are uncertain about EV battery capacity 2 . Additionally, the high battery cost and the need to make EVs affordable for price-sensitive markets further complicate the scenario 170 . Since consumers’ concerns significantly influence their intention to adopt EVs, governments and industry manufacturers must allocate research resources for battery technology development and charging infrastructure expansion to help alleviate some customers’ concerns about EV adoption 167 .

Widespread penetration of EVs into the utility grid potentially impacts the power grid; thus, smart controlled charging is crucial in EV electrification to minimize the impact of uncontrolled charging on the power system. V2G technology enables bidirectional energy flow between EVs and the power grid, thus transforming EVs into valuable energy storage resources and unlocking numerous advantages. However, several future challenges remain to expand the use of this technology.

In this paper, EV penetration problems on grids as well as the main benefits of V2G technology, related challenges and recommended research directions and remedies are discussed in detail and summarized in Fig.  14 . Moreover, other critical factors, which are not widely investigated, are studied in this paper. This includes factors that are influential at the regulatory, social, economic and environmental levels. For all these factors, the main key findings, challenges and recommended measures are discussed, and the main issues covered by each of these impacts are highlighted in Fig.  15 .

Technical impacts, challenges and research directions.

Aspects of other impacts.

With respect to the prioritization of the multidimensional impacts associated with EV penetration, the technical concerns, specifically those affecting the power grid due to uncontrolled EV charging, will likely act first. This is related to the fact that the following technical issues are encountered 171 :

Immediate Impact: As EV adoption increases, the most immediate and measurable impact, particularly in urban areas with high EV con concentrations, is the stress and overload imposed on the grid, especially during peak hours. This can be associated with voltage variations and imbalance along with harmonics and power quality issues, leading to potential outages or inefficiencies. The influence of each technical problem differs according to the penetration level, system ratings, RES integration and existing charging infrastructure capabilities.

Mitigation Needs: Addressing the latter requires near-term investments in smart charging infrastructure, grid upgrades to balance loads effectively and mitigation techniques to attenuate these technical problems. Nevertheless, the cost and scalability of these mitigation techniques differ according to the nature of the adopted technique (hardware or software), where software solutions add to system control complexity, whereas hardware solutions add to system cost and size. The latter is also affected by the hardware solution topology, whether it includes high-cost power-electronic devices, featuring enhanced mitigation results, or relatively less cost passive elements yet with limited performance.

Notably, delays in addressing technical issues directly impact social acceptance, and economic incentives for wider adoption and even environmental benefits may not be fully realized. Hence, immediate resolution of technical challenges is mandatory, setting the stage for broader cross-linked aspects, including economic, social, and environmental transformations, as EV infrastructure matures as well as policies evolving to adapt to the new landscape.

With respect to the scalability of the multidimensional effects associated with EV penetration; varying scales of impacts are encountered 172 . Local, regional and national areas will initially face technical, social and economic challenges, whereas global efforts will extend to regulatory and environmental aspects. Table  17 summarizes the main enhancements required for each aspect, related effort costs and the corresponding scaling level.

Technical aspect: local to national scale

Immediate solutions will involve upgrading local grid infrastructure, smart meters, and establishing charging stations whereas long-term V2G investments involve national governments, regulatory bodies, and the private sector as they will require bi-directional charging technology, communication systems between vehicles and the grid, and regulatory frameworks for energy storage and distribution.

Social aspect: local to regional scale

Investments in public awareness campaigns, incentives for EV adoption, and educational programs will be required at local and regional levels.

Economic aspect: regional to national scale

The electricity market must witness transformation due to the need to adapt to new players (EV owners, aggregators) participating in energy generation and storage. This will include investments in setting up regional energy markets along with setting regulatory standards. Moreover, national governments may need to establish tax incentives, subsidies, and support programs to smooth the transition to EVs and V2G systems, especially for those economically displaced by the shift.

Regulatory aspect: regional to global scale

National governments should set regulatory standards for regional energy generation, storage and charging scheduling as well as establish policies and incentives (tax breaks, subsidies) besides collaboration with private sectors to promote widespread EV use. Additionally, later on, international cooperation on standards and regulations will be necessary, requiring governmental negotiations and policy changes.

Environmental aspects: local to global scale

Investments in greener electricity sources (e.g., wind, solar) at the local and regional levels will drive the environmental benefit but require significant initial capital. International grants and partnerships with private companies will be essential. To mitigate battery waste, large-scale recycling facilities and regulations as well as global research on battery disposal will be required.

Finally, for a broad integrated outlook on all the previously discussed factors, the 5D vision is a promising tool for designing and implementing V2G technology. The 5D vision, as shown in Fig.  16 , is a newly developed outlook offering different perspectives when dealing with issues and policies arising in EVs in the future and covering overall EV applications to satisfy multiple stakeholders 19 . The main advantage of 5D vision is that it provides a digital platform for future EV implementations, thus maintaining the following sustainable development goals:

Decentralization: Various noncentralized control schemes that address a wide range of input and output parameters and exchange data between EVs, aggregators and control centers throughout the utility grid.

Decarbonization: Supporting a clean green environment for both the utility grid and transportation system.

Democratization: Distributed generation via diverse independent power producers supporting V2X technology.

Deregulation: Regulating energy sales and deciding from where to buy convenient demand on the basis of the electricity market for a win‒win game to the utility and EV owners.

Digitalization: Transformation of EV generations and development of new ones using digital technology.

5D vision of V2G technology in smart grid systems 19 .

Owing to its environmental, social and economic benefits compared to traditional vehicles, there is a persistent need to expanding EVs adoption and integration to utility grid. However, uncoordinated charging results in negative impacts imposed on the utility upon which V2G technology is developed offering enhanced grid stability, increased integration of renewable energy, load balancing and financial incentives for EV owners. This paper presents different EVs technologies as well as V2G infrastructure. This is followed by a detailed quantified analysis of the technical problems reflected on the utility, in case of uncontrolled EV charging, along with the corresponding solutions. In addition, the current need for the promising V2G technology and its benefits in achieving a more stable, reliable and eco-friendly utility grid are discussed. Besides these technical aspects, the proposed study covers other critical factors that influence V2G adoption politically, environmentally, socially and economically. Moreover, this study contributes in highlighting challenges and knowledge gaps facing each of the studied impacts, then driving respective recommendations and research directions to enhance the adoption and social acceptance of this technology.

Hence, this study provides useful information and suggest measures that can guide decision-makers to establish required policies and manufacturers to develop standards and advancements towards EV charging scheduling, coordination and infrastructure upgrading and expanding. Moreover, this will encourage governments to offer subsidies to EV manufacturers and incentives to EV consumers as well as establishing partnerships with third parties and holding awareness campaigns to increase the acceptance and accelerate adoption of V2G technology among community. Finally, this will also direct research towards new trends of safe battery production, handling and disposal as well as secure communication and 5Ds Vision scheme. In conclusion, the proposed study is targeted at hastening the transition to V2G by identifying benefits, influencing factors and challenges, emphasizing research patterns and drawing recommendations and tangible conclusions.

Data availability

All data used to support the findings of this study are included in the article.

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Ibrahim, R.A., Gaber, I.M. & Zakzouk, N.E. Analysis of multidimensional impacts of electric vehicles penetration in distribution networks. Sci Rep 14 , 27854 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-77662-6

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