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Studies in Indian Politics is a double blind peer-reviewed bi-annual journal. The journal publishes research writings that seek to explain different aspects of Indian politics. The journal adopts a multi-method approach and publish articles based on primary data in the qualitative and quantitative traditions, archival research, interpretation of texts and documents, and secondary data. The Journal covers a wide variety of sub-fields in politics, such as political ideas and thought in India, political institutions and processes, Indian democracy and politics in a comparative perspective particularly with reference to the global South and South Asia, India in world affairs, and public policies. While such a scope makes it accessible to a large number of readers, keeping India at the centre of the focus makes it target-specific.

The journal is a forum for those engaged in the pursuit of generating new knowledge and analyses of Indian politics based on original research. By way of making such a knowledge and analyses accessible to the public, it cater to the needs of a large number of social and political scientists engaged in teaching and research at educational and research institutions in India and abroad. SIP expects readership mainly from academics and students (both post-graduate and research level) in higher education institutions and research institutes in India and abroad. We also expect a few interested journalists, NGO functionaries, political analysts and commentators and policy makers to read the journal.

The journal caters to the need of researchers and students in Political Science, and within political science, its emphasis will be on Indian politics, state politics in India, political thinking in India and comparative politics with India/global South as the focus.

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South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal

Home Thematic Issues 3 Studying Elections in India: Scie...

Studying Elections in India: Scientific and Political Debates

Election studies (which are here defined as scholarly work focusing on the major phases of the electoral process, i.e. the campaign, the vote, the announcement of results and subsequent government formation) constitute a distinct sub-genre of studies on democracy, which focuses, so to speak, on the ‘mechanics’ more than on the ‘substance’ of representative democracy. This sub-genre, being relatively more visible than other studies of representative democracy, has specific implications, in the academic but also in the political arena, which are the focus of this critical review of the literature on Indian elections since the 1980s. The paper argues that election studies are really in between science and politics, and that it is important, therefore, to contextualize them.

Index terms

Keywords: .

1 Studying elections in the largest democracy in the world is bound to be a challenge: given the size of the country and of its population, Indian national elections have been the largest electoral exercise in the world ever since the first national elections in 1952. Moreover the cultural, linguistic, ethnic and religious diversity of the Indian society, as well as the federal nature of the Indian state, make this event a particularly complex one. What, then, have been the methodologies and approaches deployed to study this major political event? What have been the disciplines and foci of election studies? Who have been the main authors? In what form have these studies been publicized, and what type of readership have they targeted? Reading the available literature with these questions in mind, I have tried to identify some major shifts over time, and to grasp their meaning and implications; a few interviews with specialists of the field have allowed me to test some of the interpretations suggested by the readings. Through a review of the literature on Indian elections since the 1980s, this paper aims at mapping the scientific and political debates around election studies.

• 1 Most works considered here deal with national elections, but some of them also focus on state elect (...)
• 2 I owe this formulation to Amit Prakash, whose comments on a previous version of this paper were ver (...)

2 Election studies are here defined as scholarly work focusing on the major phases of the electoral process, i.e. the campaign, the vote, the announcement of results and subsequent government formation. 1 This is a restrictive definition: elections are obviously a central institution of representative democracy, and as such they are connected to every aspect of the polity. Yet election studies constitute a distinct sub-genre of studies on democracy, which focuses, so to speak, on the ‘mechanics’ more than on the ‘substance’ of representative democracy. 2 This sub-genre, being relatively more visible than other studies of representative democracy, has specific implications, in the academic but also in the political arena, which will be the focus of this critical review. This paper will argue that election studies are really in between science and politics, and that it is important, therefore, to contextualize them.

3 The paper starts with a quick overview of the different types of election studies which have been produced on India, and goes on to analyze a series of dilemmas and debates attached to election studies, which highlight the intricate nature of the political and scientific issues at stake.

The study of Indian elections: an overview

4 At least three previous reviews of election studies have been realized, by Narain (1978), Brass (1985), and Kondo (2007). Both Narain and Kondo provide a fairly exhaustive list of publications in this field, and discuss their relevance and quality. Brass’ review also offers a detailed discussion of the advantages and limitations of ecological approaches, to which I will later return.

5 There is no need to repeat this exercise here. But in view of situating the debates described in the next section of the paper, I simply want to sketch a broad typology of election studies published since the late 1980s—a moment which can be considered as the emergence of the new configuration of the Indian political scene, characterized by (i) the importance of regional parties and regional politics; (ii) the formation of ruling coalitions at the national and regional levels; and (iii) the polarization of national politics around the Congress, the BJP, and the ‘third space’.

6 All three reviews of the literature highlight the diversity of disciplines, methods, authors, institutions, and publication support of studies of Indian elections. But a major dividing line appears today between case studies and survey research (which largely match a distinction between qualitative and quantitative studies), with a number of publications, however, combining elements of both.

Case studies

7 Case studies analyze elections from the vantage point of a relatively limited political territory, which can be the village (for instance Somjee 1959), the city (or, within the city, the mohalla , the basti ), the constituency, the district, or the state. The major discipline involved in this type of research has been political science. Indeed elections have been the object par excellence of political science worldwide. In India as elsewhere, as we will see below, election studies reveal characteristic features of this relatively recent discipline, insofar as they embody some tensions between science and politics.

• 3 Another example is a study of parliamentary and state elections in a village in Orissa at the end o (...)

8 Paul Brass developed the case study method in the course of his long interest for politics in Uttar Pradesh. His monograph on the 1977 and 1980 elections focuses on Uttar Pradesh (he justifies this choice saying that this election was largely decided in North India). His research is based on fieldwork in five selected constituencies whose ‘electoral history’ is minutely recalled. Here the choice of the unit of analysis is linked to pedagogical considerations: ‘Each constituency chosen illustrates a different aspect of the main social conflicts that have been prominent in UP politics’, he writes (Brass 1985: 175). Indeed in the case study approach, the detailed observation of elections in a particular area aims at uncovering processes and dynamics which are relevant for a much wider territory. 3

• 4 In the early years of independent India, the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR) com (...)
• 5 One must note that among the various disciplines producing case studies, anthropology uses the larg (...)

9 Beside political science, anthropology has also approached elections in a manner close to case studies. 4 But anthropological studies are usually focused on a more limited political territory (typically, the village), and more importantly, they are centered on a questioning of the meaning of the electoral process 5 for voters: why do people vote? More precisely, why do they bother, what is the meaning of voting for them? Thus anthropologists often focus on the symbolic dimension of elections:

From this [symbolic] perspective, democracy is really an untrue but vitally important myth in support of social cohesion, with elections as its central and regular ritual enactment that helps maintain and restore equilibrium (Banerjee 2007: 1556).

10 Taking the ritual as a central metaphor in their accounts of elections, anthropologists help us see the various ‘ceremonies’ and ‘performances’ that constitute the electoral process:

To define [the] cultural qualities of Indian democracy, it is important to view the ritual of the election process through four consecutive ceremonies [:] Party endorsement […], the actual campaign […], the day of polling [and the] public announcement [of winners] (Hauser & Singer 1986: 945).

11 On the basis of their observations of two elections in Bihar in the 1980s, Hauser and Singer define the electoral process as a ‘cycle’. They describe the successive phases of this cycle, and draw parallels with religious rituals, noting for instance that the electoral process involves a series of processions. Their likening of the electoral campaign to a ‘pilgrimage’ manifesting the ‘inversion of power from the hands of the politicians back to the hands of the voters’ (Hauser & Singer 1986: 947) goes a long way in explaining the festive dimension of Indian elections.

12 Anthropological studies of elections also clearly show how elections precipitate, or at least highlight, otherwise latent political dynamics. The long fieldwork characteristic of the discipline makes it possible to concretely demonstrate how elections render visible otherwise subtle, if not invisible, relationships of influence:

[…] election day was when the complexity of the village’s social life was distilled into moments of structure and clarity, when diffuse tensions and loyalties were made unusually manifest (Banerjee 2007: 1561).

13 For Banerjee, who studied politics from the standpoint of a village in West Bengal, an election is a celebration in two ways: (i) it is a festive social event; (ii) it involves a sense of democracy as sacred. Therefore she understands ‘elections as sacred expressions of citizenship’ (Banerjee 2007: 1561).

14 For all their evocative strength, one can regret that anthropological studies of Indian elections deal mostly with villages and with traditional electoral practices. However one must also note that elections elsewhere have attracted even less attention from anthropologists. Indeed, a recent issue of Qualitative Sociology deplored that ‘at a time when few, if any, objects are beyond the reach and scrutiny of ethnographers, it is quite surprising that politics and its main protagonists (state officials, politicians and activists) remain largely un(der)studied by ethnography’s mainstream’ (Auyero 2006: 257).

Other approaches

15 A number of articles and books on Indian elections combine different methodological approaches. Thus some of Banerjee’s conclusions are shared by the political scientists Ahuja and Chibber ( n.d. ), in an interesting study combining quantitative and qualitative methods ( i.e. election surveys (1989-2004) and a series of focus group discussions) in three large Indian states. In order to understand the particular pattern of electoral turnout described by Yadav as characteristic of the ‘second democratic upsurge’ (Yadav 2000), Ahuja and Chibber identify three broad social groups, defined by three distinct ‘interpretations’ of voting. They argue that ‘differences in the voting patterns of opposite ends of the social spectrum exist because each group interprets the act of voting differently’. Thus the act of voting is considered as a ‘right’ by the groups who are on the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum—the ‘marginalized’; as an ‘instrument […] to gain access to the state and its resources’ by those in the middle of that spectrum—the ‘State’s clients’; and as ‘civic duty’ by those at the top—‘the elite’ (Ahuja & Chibber 2009: 1-9).

• 6 One must also mention the ‘Chronicle of an Impossible Election’— i.e. the 2002 Assembly election in (...)

16 Among the ‘other approaches’ of elections, one also finds a number of monographs devoted to a single election 6 . For instance Myron Weiner’s study of the 1977 election constitutes an interesting, contemporary account of the beginning of the end of Congress dominance over Indian politics, with the first part devoted to the campaign and the second part to the analysis of results, on the basis on a medley of methods typical of political science:

In four widely scattered cities – Bombay […], Calcutta, Hyderabad, and New Delhi […]—[the author] talked to civil servants, candidates, campaign workers, newspaper editors, and people in the streets, attended campaign rallies and visited ward offices, collected campaign literature, listened to the radio, and followed the local press (Weiner 1978: 21)

17 In the 1990, a series of collective volume were published on parliamentary elections (for instance Roy & Wallace 1999). Often based on aggregate data such as those published by the Election Commission of India, they offer a series of papers that are interpretative, speculative, critical in nature.

• 7 This is in sharp contrast with France, where electoral geographers such as André Siegfried have bee (...)

18 I have found one single book of electoral geography (Dikshit 1993), 7 which presents election results (crossed with census data) as a series of maps. This particular method highlights unexpected regional contrasts and similarities, which stimulates the production of explanatory hypotheses.

• 8 This inventory of ‘ other’ election studies, that is, studies of elections that fall neither in the (...)

19 Finally, a recent book by Wendy Singer (2007) makes a case for an application of social history to elections. Going through a large material relating to elections (national, state, local) from 1952 to the 1990s, she shows how some details of the electoral process reveal important social changes over time. 8

20 The gathering of the above mentioned writings in a single, residual category is not meant to suggest that they are less effective than case studies or survey research in describing and explaining elections. On the contrary, the variety of methodologies that they mobilize shows the richness of elections as an object of scientific enquiry. But these studies eschew the strong methodological choices which define the other two categories and which point to the political stakes specific to election studies.

Survey research

21 Survey research has been dominating election studies since the 1990s for a variety of reasons. I will here use Yadav’s definition of this particular method:

[…] a technique of data gathering in which a sample of respondents is asked questions about their political preferences and beliefs to draw conclusions about political opinions, attitudes and behavior of a wider population of citizens (Yadav 2008: 5).

9 Eric Da Costa founded the Journal of Public Opinion .

• 10 The CSDS was meant, in Kothari’s own words: ‘One, to give a truly empirical base to political scien (...)
• 11 The CSDS did not even study the 1977 election, on which we fortunately have Myron Weiner’s monograp (...)

22 Survey research exemplifies the close relationship between the media and political science. It was introduced in India in the late 1950s by an economist turned journalist, Eric Da Costa, considered ‘the father of opinion polling in India’ (Butler et al. 1995: 41), 9 who went on to work with the Indian Institute of Public Opinion (IIPO) created in 1956—but it was political scientists such as Bashiruddin Ahmed, Ramashray Roy and Rajni Kothari who gave it a scientific grounding. In his Memoirs (2002), Kothari recalls how he went to Michigan University—which had developed an expertise in psephology, i.e. the statistical analysis of elections - to get trained in survey research. When he came back to India, Kothari applied this new method in his work at the Delhi-based Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), which he had founded a few years earlier, in 1963. 10 The first election to which he applied this newly acquired expertise was the Kerala state election in 1965 (Lokniti team 2004: 5373). The CSDS team then went on to study general elections in 1967, 1971 and 1980, but it seems to have progressively lost interest for election studies—hence the gap between this first series 11 and the new series which started in 1996—in a new political context, as we will see further.

23 The renaissance, so to speak, of electoral surveys, came from another academic turned journalist: Prannoy Roy. An economist by training, Roy learnt survey research in the United Kingdom. After coming back to India in the early 1980s, he applied this method to Indian elections. He co-produced a series of volumes, with Butler and Lahiri, he conducted a series of all India opinion polls for the magazine India Today, but more importantly in 1998 he founded a new television channel, New Delhi Television (NDTV) on which he anchored shows devoted to the statistical analysis of elections—thus popularizing psephology.

• 12 The CSDS entered into a stable partnership with the new channel six months before it went on air, w (...)

24 The link between these two pioneering institutions of psephology, CSDS and NDTV, was provided by Yogendra Yadav, a young political scientist who was brought from Chandigarh University to the CSDS by Rajni Kothari. Yadav revived the data unit of the CSDS and went on to supervise an uninterrupted series of electoral studies which have been financially supported and publicized by the print media, but also by NDTV. Yadav’s expertise, his great ability to explain psephological analyses both in English and Hindi, made him a star of TV shows devoted to elections, first on NDTV, and then on the channel co-founded by the star anchor Rajdeep Sardesai after he left NDTV: CNN-IBN. 12 In 1995, the CSDS team around Yogendra Yadav created Lokniti, a network of scholars based in the various Indian states, working on democracy in general and on elections in particular. The Lokniti network has been expanding both in sheer numbers and in terms of disciplines, and it has consistently observed elections since 1996.

25 In a landmark volume published in 1995 by Roy along with two other scholars, David Butler and Ashok Lahiri, the authors had made a strong statement in favour of psephology, even while acknowledging its limits: ‘This book […] offers the ‘What?’ of the electoral record; it does not deal with the ‘Why?’’ (Butler et al. 1995: 4). In this regard, the CSDS data unit has strived, from 1996 onwards, to improve its data gathering in order to capture more of the ‘Why?’, i.e. to capture with increasing accuracy the electoral behaviour of Indians and its explanatory factors. More generally, it has aimed ‘to use elections as an occasion or as a window to making sense of trends and patterns in democratic politics’ (Lokniti Team 2004: 5373).

• 13 The ‘notes on elections’ published in Electoral Studies favour a strongly institutional perspective (...)

26 The CSDS election studies have also been published in academic supports such as the Economic and Political Weekly (EPW) in India, or Electoral Studies on the international level 13 , and they have been used by a large number of academic works in political sociology (for instance Jaffrelot (2008) on the vote of the urban middle classes). Recently, the Lokniti network has published a series of state election studies in Hindi and in English, with academic publishing houses (Mohan 2009, Shastri 2009).

Scientific and political debates

27 Debates around the study of Indian elections involve political and scientific arguments which are sometimes difficult to disentangle. These debates underline that no method is politically neutral, and they illustrate the particularly problematic relationship of one discipline, political science, with the political sphere and with the media.

Scientific dilemmas

28 The opposition between case studies and survey research can be broken into a series of dilemmas and choices.

29 The first dilemma concerns the most relevant unit of analysis: should one privilege width or depth? The central difficulty here is often to combine feasibility and relevance. In his introduction to a series of case studies done in the 1960s and 1970s, Shah writes:

A major limitation of the survey method is its inability to capture the influence of local politics on the electoral behavior of small communities. A questionnaire administered to individual voters can elicit information about individual attitudes and opinions but cannot capture the larger reality of events involving a collectivity of individuals acting over a longer period of time. A fieldworker who knows the community is better equipped to capture that reality (Shah 2007: 12).

• 14 Both Brass (1985) and Palshikar (2007) make a forceful argument in favour of taking the constituenc (...)

30 As we saw, case studies, focusing on a limited area, 14 do offer historical depth, for example in Brass (1985). The anthropological brand of case studies also offers ‘cultural’ depth, through a wealth of concrete details which suggest the multiple meanings of elections for voters. However survey research allows generalizations; and it contextualizes results by identifying patterns, linked to regions or social groups.

31 The second dilemma concerns quantitative vs. qualitative methods. This opposition cannot be reduced to the use of figures vs. words. While many case studies involve some quantified description of the vote, they are deeply qualitative in nature, insofar as they aim at uncovering the qualities of particular political trajectories—of a community, a party, a constituency, a state etc. Survey research on the contrary aims at revealing general patterns. Here again the question of feasibility is central: while surveys are expensive, case studies are time intensive.

• 15 For instance, the first National Election Study, conducted by the CSDS in 1967, did not take women (...)

32 An important dimension of that dilemma relates, again, to the capacity of these two types of methods to capture the meaning of elections for voters. Survey research, functioning with closed questions, conveys only the meanings that the survey design has anticipated, and risks perpetuating the prejudices of its authors. 15 By contrast, qualitative methods such as open interviews and direct observation are more likely to bring out unexpected interpretations.

33 However one large consensus appears to bridge the divide between survey research a la CSDS and case studies: the ‘ecological’ approach is preferred to the ‘strategic’ approach of elections. Ecological analyses ‘correlate electoral with other kind of aggregate data’ (Brass 1985: 3). They focus on ‘the sociological characteristics of voters, which determine the construction of their representation of politics and their social solidarity’ (Hermet et al. 2001: 31), whereas the ‘economical’ or strategic approach is based on methodological individualism and the problematic of the rational voter. Already in 1985 Paul Brass argued that ‘ecological analyses had a ‘useful place in India electoral studies’ ( ibid )—indeed he expanded on their advantages and limitations, through a detailed discussion of the methodological issues arising from the difficulty of relating electoral and census data, and of the technical solutions found by a number of works which he reviewed.

34 The evolution of National Election Studies (NES) conducted by the CSDS since 1996 shows an attempt to develop increasingly ecological types of analysis, by introducing more and more variables in their considerations. Indeed the latest surveys come close to meeting the advantages of ecological approaches as explained by Brass: ‘Identifying the underlying structural properties of party systems, […] presenting time series data to discover trends in voting behaviour, […] identifying distinctive regional contexts in which voting choices occur, and […] discovering unthought of relationships through the manipulation of available data’ (Brass 1985: 4).

35 A recent exception vis-à-vis this consensus is Kanchan Chandra’s work on ‘ethnic voting’ (Chandra 2008), which analyses electoral mobilization as a mode of negotiation used by marginal groups. Chandra argues that the poorer groups in India use their vote as ‘their primary channel of influence’. In a description of ‘elections as auctions’, she argues that the ‘purchasing power of small groups of voters’ depends ‘upon the degree to which electoral contests are competitive’ (Chandra 2004: 4). Her interpretation of the relatively high turnout in Indian elections, even as one government after the other fails the poor, is a materialist one:

16 Emphasis mine. When survival goods are allotted by the political market rather than as entitlements, voters who need these goods have no option but to participate. […] Voters do not themselves have control over the distribution of goods. But by voting strategically and voting often, they can increase their chances of obtaining these goods (Chandra 2004: 5). 16

Academic rivalries

36 The above dilemmas are extremely widespread, but in the Indian context they also correspond, to some extent, to academic rivalries between scholars and institutions, which might explain their persistence over time.

• 17 The debate on the scientific legitimacy of survey research as opposed to more theoretical, or more (...)
• 18 The preference for qualitative methods actually extends to other disciplines among social sciences (...)
• 19 In this regard, Mukherji’s account of State elections in the early 1980s in a constituency of West (...)

37 One can identify, to start with, an implicit rivalry between political science and psephology—even though the latter can be considered as a sub-discipline of the former. 17 A few texts, but also interviews, reveal a mutual distrust, both in scientific and political terms. Indian political science values theoretical work more than empirical research; qualitative more than quantitative methods; 18 politically, it favours a radical critique of the political system. 19 Survey research, of course, is essentially empirical, quantitative and ‘status quoist’. Yogendra Yadav thus sums up the situation that prevailed in the late 1980s:

The label ‘ survey research’ stood for what was considered most inappropriate in the third world imitation of American science of politics: it was methodologically naïve, politically conservative and culturally inauthentic (Yadav 2008: 3).

38 Even today, quantitative methods, which are much fashionable in American (and more lately in French) political science, are hardly taught in the political science curriculum of Indian universities. Thus Kothari’s endeavour to launch a ‘so-called ‘new political science’’ in the CSDS in the 1960s—this was the time of the behaviorist revolution in social sciences—was a lonely one. He describes this ambition thus:

[It] was mainly based on the empirical method leading to detailed analytical understanding of the political processes […] The ‘ people’ came within that framework, as voters and citizens with desires, attitudes and opinions; our task as academics was to build from there towards a macro-theory of democracy, largely through empirical surveys of political behavior (by and large limited to electoral choices) but also through broader surveys of social and political change (Kothari 2002: 60-61).

39 This project actually seems to be realized through the Lokniti network which links the CSDS data unit with a number of colleges or universities across the country (and thus contributes to training an increasingly large number of students who are then hired as investigators for National and State Election studies).

40 As far as the political agenda of survey research is concerned, Yadav makes a passionate plea for ‘transfer as transformation’ (Yadav 2008: 16) i.e. for an adaptation of survey research to the political culture of countries of the global South, with a double objective: (i) to make survey research more relevant scientifically; (ii) to use it as a politically empowering device, that is ‘[…] to ensure that subaltern and suppressed opinions are made public’ (Yadav 2008: 18).

41 Much of the latent opposition between psephologists and other political scientists is probably due to the disproportionate visibility of psephologists when compared to other social scientists working on elections. But the close connection between psephology and the media is a double edged sword. On the one hand, it offers researchers a much needed financial support:

Some of the leading media publications like the Hindu, India Today, Frontline and the Economist supported [National Election Studies] between 1996 and 1999 (Lokniti team 2004: 5375).

• 20 Thus in spite of the continuing efforts of NES to improve its methods, it failed to accurately pred (...)

42 On the other hand, it forces them to engage with the scientifically dubious, and economically risky, exercise of predicting results, 20 or explaining them immediately after their publication. However, the consistent transparency and critical self-appraisal of surveys conducted by the CSDS goes a long way in asserting their scientific credibility:

Within India, the NES series has sought to distinguish itself from the growing industry of pre-election opinion polls […] The difficulties of obtaining independent support for NES made the Lokniti group turn to media support which in turn required the group to carry out some pre-election opinion polls and even exit polls linked to seats forecast. The experiment yielded mixed results, some reasonably accurate forecasts along with some embarrassing ones (Lokniti team 2004: 5380)

• 21 See, for instance, Lokniti Team 2004, in which the methodological flaws and evolutions (in terms of (...)

43 A more explicit and constructive debate has been taking place, lately, between psephology and anthropology. Notwithstanding his refusal to ‘participate in methodological crusades on social sciences’ (Yadav 2008: 4), Yadav has consistently sought to situate, explain, improve and diffuse his brand of survey research on elections 21 . His call for a ‘dialogue’, elaborated upon by Palshikar (‘how to integrate the methods and insights of field study and survey research’ 2007: 25) has been answered by Mukulika Banerjee, who is currently directing, along with Lokniti, an unprecedented project of Comparative Electoral Ethnography, which aims at ‘bringing together the strengths of large-scale and local-level investigations’ ( www.lokniti.org/comparative_electoral_ethnography.html accessed in May 2009) .

Political issues

44 One can distinguish three types of relationship between elections studies and politics, which correspond to three distinct, if related, questions. Firstly, how do elections studies meet the need of political actors? Secondly, to what extent are they an offshoot of American political science? And thirdly, what representation of democracy do they support?

45 Firstly, the development of survey research is directly linked to Indian political life:

In the 1950s there were virtually no market research organizations in India. The dominance of the Congress diminished any incentive to develop political polls (Butler et al . 1995: 41).

46 At the time of the second non-Congress government at the Centre (1989-1991), political parties started commissioning surveys which they used to build their electoral strategy (Rao 2009). Indian elections have been decided at the state level since the 1990s, and the proliferation of national pre-poll survey from the 1991 election onwards can be linked to the uncertainty of the electoral results in a context of increasing assertion of regional parties (Rao 2009). The fact that the CSDS resumed its elections series in 1996 is doubtlessly linked to the transformations that have been characterizing the Indian political scene since the beginning of that decade. The rise to power of the Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh and its emergence in other North Indian states, and more generally the fragmentation of political representation, with new parties representing increasingly smaller social groups, has made it increasingly necessary to know who votes for which party in which state—and why.

47 Furthermore the decentralization policy adopted in 1992 has generated a lot of interest both from actors and observers of Indian politics. Today the newfound interest for ethnographic, locally rooted types of election studies may well have to do with the fact that the national scale is increasingly challenged as the most relevant one to understand Indian politics.

48 Secondly, a more covert, but no less important aspect of the debate relates to what could be roughly called the ‘Western domination’ of survey research. Methods have been learnt by leading Indian figures in the United States or in the United Kingdom (even in the 2000s, CSDS members get trained in the summer school in survey research in Michigan University). Authors are often American (or working in the American academia). Funding often involves foreign funding agencies.

• 22 This problem is not restricted to survey research alone: thus Mitra evokes the ‘Americanisation of (...)
• 23 Linz, Stepan and Yadav 2007 represents a good example of the changing status of the Indian case in (...)

24 See Fauvelle 2008.

49 More importantly, the key concepts of survey research are often drawn from the rich field of American election studies, 22 and particularly from behaviourism, a school of thought which is rejected by part of the Indian academia. Lastly, the general (and often implicit) reference to which the Indian scenario is compared is actually the United States and Western Europe. On the one hand, these comparative efforts 23 testify to the fact that India is not an outsider any more as far as democracies are concerned. On the other hand, one can regret an excessive focus, in comparisons, on the West, insofar as it skews the assessment of the Indian case (for instance the Indian pattern of voter turnout, which is qualified as ‘exceptional’ by Yadav because it breaks from the trend observed in North America and Western Europe, might appear less so if it was compared, say, to post-Apartheid South Africa). 24

50 Thirdly, all election studies support a (more or less implicit) discourse on Indian democracy; they can always be read as a ‘state of democracy report’ (Jayal 2006). In this regard, one of the criticisms addressed to psephological studies is that their narrow focus tends to convey a rosy picture, since elections are usually considered as ‘free and fair’ in the Indian democracy, which is often qualified as ‘procedural’, i.e. which conforms to democratic procedures (regular elections and political alternance, a free press) but not to democratic values (starting with equality). The sheer magnitude of the logistics involved in conducting national elections is bound to evoke admiring appraisals, which tend to obliterate the limits of procedural democracy. Thus Jayal criticizes the ‘the fallacy of electoralism’:

The scholars who subscribe to the limited, proceduralist view of democracy, are generally buoyant about Indian democracy... Their analyses emphatically exclude the many social and economic inequalities that make it difficult for even formal participation to be effective (Jayal 2001: 3).

51 Moreover the huge costs involved in conducting sample surveys on ever larger samples imply that the funders—which include the media—can put pressure on the team conducting the survey. And one can see two reasons why survey research is so media friendly: one, its (supposed) ability to predict results makes it an indispensable component of the horse-race, entertaining aspect of elections; two, it contributes to the ‘feel good’ factor as it shows, election after election, that the turnout is high and that results are unpredictable; it thus gives credit to the idea of democratic choice.

52 To this positive assessment, some Indian political scientists oppose the more critical vision offered by case studies of Indian politics focusing not on the mainstream, but on the margins. Here anthropology offers a way out, since the informed perspective of the long time fieldworker allows a simultaneous perception of the mainstream and of the margins. Thus the works of Hauser and Singer or that of Banerjee, offering a minute description of the various ‘ceremonies’ that together constitute the election process from the vantage point of voters, highlight both the empowering and the coercive dimensions of voting. Their studies suggest that when it comes to elections, the relationship between celebration and alienation is a very subtle one.

53 Elections are a complex, multi-dimensional social and political event which can be captured only through a variety of methods: this literature review underlines how the different approaches complete each other and are therefore equally necessary. While Indian election studies, at least at the national and state levels, have been dominated, since the 1990s, by survey research, the Lokniti based project of ‘Comparative Electoral Ethnography’ should contribute to restoring some balance between various types of studies. Also, academic debates around the scientific and political implications and limitations of election studies seem to lead to a convergence: while questionnaire-based surveys evolve towards a finer apprehension of the opinions and attitudes of Indian voters, anthropological studies strive to overcome the limitations of fieldwork based on a single, limited area.

• 25 For instance anthropological studies tend to focus on the short period comprised between the beginn (...)

54 One can regret that studies of Indian elections, by all disciplines, tend to focus exclusively on the vote, which certainly is a climactic moment of the electoral process, but by no means the only interesting one. 25 Indeed a recent attempt by the CSDS team to understand participation beyond voting, in order to qualify the ‘second democratic upsurge’ (Yadav 2000) through a state wise analysis of the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, suggests that a broader definition of the electoral process might significantly contribute to solving the ‘puzzle of Indian democracy’ (Chibber & Petrocik 1989, Lijphart 1996). They conclude that ‘comparison across social sections shows that a broader entry of the underprivileged into the political arena is much more limited, even today, than the entry of the more privileged social sections’ (Palshikar & Kumar 2004: 5414). The complementarities of different approaches are here glaring: ethnographic work is much needed to understand the implications of the fact that ‘over the years there is a steady increase in the number of people who participated in election campaign activity’ (Palshikar & Kumar 2004: 5415).

55 One wishes also that anthropological studies of future elections deal not only with the traditional elements of voting (the campaign procession, the inking of the finger etc.), but also with newer elements of the process: what has been the impact of the model code of conduct, or of the increasing use of SMS and internet in the campaign, on electoral rituals? What about the collective watching of TV shows focusing on elections, both before and after the results are known?

56 Finally, at a time when election surveys have acquired an unprecedented visibility, due to their relationship with the mass media, one can only lament the absence of rigorous studies on the role of the media, both print and audio-visual, in funding, shaping and publicizing election studies.

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1 Most works considered here deal with national elections, but some of them also focus on state elections.

2 I owe this formulation to Amit Prakash, whose comments on a previous version of this paper were very helpful.

3 Another example is a study of parliamentary and state elections in a village in Orissa at the end of Emergency, in which S. Mitra describes the caste dynamics in the village and the way it plays out during electoral times to show how ‘elections are used as instruments by various sections of the society to convert their political resources and power into authority’ (Mitra 1979: 419).

4 In the early years of independent India, the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR) commissioned a series of case studies, some of which are reviewed by Narain (1978). A more recently published volume offers a sample of such studies, conducted in the late 1960s by the sociology department of Delhi University under the supervision of M.N.Srinivas and A.M.Shah (Shah 2007).

5 One must note that among the various disciplines producing case studies, anthropology uses the largest definition of political participation, to include not only voting, but also participating in meetings, supporting the campaign of a particular party or candidate etc.

6 One must also mention the ‘Chronicle of an Impossible Election’— i.e. the 2002 Assembly election in Jammu and Kashmir - as told by the then Chief Election Commissioner, J.M. Lyngdoh (2004), which provides an insider’s view of how election procedures are the result of a series of (sometimes minute) decisions—aiming at asserting that the Election Commission does not represent the Indian government.

7 This is in sharp contrast with France, where electoral geographers such as André Siegfried have been the founding fathers of political science. For an illustration of how geography enriches our understanding of elections, see Lefèbvre and Robin in this volume.

8 This inventory of ‘ other’ election studies, that is, studies of elections that fall neither in the ‘case study’ nor in the ‘survey research’ type, would obviously become much more complex and large if we were to include in it the large body of literature on the party system, or on the federal structure as they evolve over time in India. However that literature does take elections as its main focus, and has therefore not been considered here.

10 The CSDS was meant, in Kothari’s own words: ‘One, to give a truly empirical base to political science [...] Two, to engage in a persistent set of writings through which our broad conceptualisation of democracy in India was laid out [...] And three, institutionalise not just the Centre as a place of learning but as part of the larger intellectual process itself’ (Kothari 2002: 39-40). Over the years, the CSDS has retained a unique place in the Indian academia, as it remains distinct from universities even while engaging in a number of collaborations with their faculty—Lokniti being a case in point.

11 The CSDS did not even study the 1977 election, on which we fortunately have Myron Weiner’s monograph.

12 The CSDS entered into a stable partnership with the new channel six months before it went on air, which testifies to the saleability of this brand of research. One week before the results of the Fifteenth election were announced, huge signboards bore a picture of the star anchor of CNN-IBN along with Yogendra Yadav, asserting the latter’s increasing popularity.

13 The ‘notes on elections’ published in Electoral Studies favour a strongly institutional perspective, concerned almost exclusively with political parties (the alliances they form, the issues they raise, the candidates they select etc.) Interestingly, nothing is said about voters.

14 Both Brass (1985) and Palshikar (2007) make a forceful argument in favour of taking the constituency as a unit of analysis.

15 For instance, the first National Election Study, conducted by the CSDS in 1967, did not take women voters into account! (Lokniti team 2004: 5374).

16 Emphasis mine.

17 The debate on the scientific legitimacy of survey research as opposed to more theoretical, or more qualitative, approaches is by no means restricted to India. Political science is a relatively young discipline, defined more by its objects than by its methods, and by a scientific community that strives to assert its scientific credentials. In this regard, electoral surveys have an ambiguous record. On the one hand, the highly technical aspect of quantitative methods gives an image of ‘scientificity’; on the other hand, the proximity (in terms of sponsors, institutions and publication supports) of electoral surveys to opinion polls (characterized by a large margin of error, and a close association with marketing techniques) maintains a doubt on the scientificity of this sub-discipline.

18 The preference for qualitative methods actually extends to other disciplines among social sciences in India: ‘A tabulation of articles in Contributions to Indian Sociology and the Sociological Bulletin [...], though not a comprehensive account of scholarship in sociology and social anthropology, did nevertheless seem to substantiate the fact that ethnographic methods far outpaced any other kind of research method’ (Sundar et al. 2000: 2000).

19 In this regard, Mukherji’s account of State elections in the early 1980s in a constituency of West Bengal dominated by Naxalites is an exception among monographic studies of elections. The book offers a candid evocation of the methodological dilemmas, constraints and solutions inherent in studying elections, and particularly of the political agenda behind election studies (in this particular case, the author, engaged in a study of the Naxalite movement, presents himself early on as a Naxalite) (Mukherji 1983).

20 Thus in spite of the continuing efforts of NES to improve its methods, it failed to accurately predict the results of elections, both in 2004 and in 2009.

21 See, for instance, Lokniti Team 2004, in which the methodological flaws and evolutions (in terms of sample size, number of languages used, decentralization of data entry and analysis etc.) of National Election Studies are discussed in detail.

22 This problem is not restricted to survey research alone: thus Mitra evokes the ‘Americanisation of [the study of] ethnic politics in the Indian context’ (Mitra 2005: 327)

23 Linz, Stepan and Yadav 2007 represents a good example of the changing status of the Indian case in comparative studies of democracy—from an exception to a major case.

25 For instance anthropological studies tend to focus on the short period comprised between the beginning of the electoral campaign and the announcement of results. A larger timeframe is needed if we are to understand how clientelism operates through the electoral process.

Electronic reference

Stéphanie Tawa Lama-Rewal , “ Studying Elections in India: Scientific and Political Debates ” ,  South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal [Online], 3 | 2009, Online since 23 December 2009 , connection on 24 August 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/samaj/2784; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/samaj.2784

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• European Social Welfare Models and Inequality
• The Schengen Agreement and Border Control
• The Rise of Far-Right Movements in Western Europe
• EU Environmental Regulations and Sustainability
• The Role of the European Court of Justice in Shaping European Politics
• Comparative Analysis of Federal Systems
• Fiscal Federalism and Taxation in Federal States
• Federalism and Ethnic Conflict Resolution
• The Role of Governors in Federal Systems
• Intergovernmental Relations in Federal Countries
• Federalism and Healthcare Policy
• Environmental Federalism and Conservation Efforts
• Federalism and Immigration Policies
• Indigenous Rights and Self-Government in Federal States
• Federalism and Education Policy
• The Role of Regional Parties in Federal Politics
• Federalism and Disaster Response
• Energy Policy and Federal-State Relations
• Federalism and Criminal Justice Reform
• Local Autonomy and Decentralization in Federal Systems
• The Impact of Federal Systems on Economic Development
• Constitutional Reform and Changes in Federalism
• Federalism and Social Welfare Programs
• The European Model of Federalism
• Comparative Analysis of Dual and Cooperative Federalism
• Foreign Policy
• Diplomatic Strategies in International Relations
• The Influence of Public Opinion on Foreign Policy
• Economic Diplomacy and Trade Negotiations
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Foreign Policy
• Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping Efforts
• International Human Rights Advocacy and Foreign Policy
• Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy
• Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Control
• Cybersecurity and Foreign Policy Challenges
• Climate Diplomacy and Global Environmental Agreements
• Refugee and Migration Policies in International Relations
• The Impact of International Organizations on Foreign Policy
• Energy Security and Geopolitical Strategies
• Regional Alliances and Security Agreements
• Terrorism and Counterterrorism Strategies
• Humanitarian Interventions and Responsibility to Protect
• The Role of Intelligence Agencies in Foreign Policy
• Economic Sanctions and Their Effectiveness
• Foreign Aid and Development Assistance
• International Law and Treaty Negotiations
• Gender and Politics
• Gender Representation in Political Leadership
• The Impact of Women’s Movements on Gender Policy
• Gender-Based Violence and Political Responses
• Intersectionality and Identity Politics in Gender Advocacy
• Gender Mainstreaming in Government Policies
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Political Movements
• Women in Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations
• The Gender Pay Gap and Labor Policies
• Female Political Empowerment and Quotas
• Masculinity Studies and Political Behavior
• Gender and Environmental Justice
• The Role of Men in Promoting Gender Equality
• Gender Stereotypes and Political Campaigns
• Reproductive Rights and Political Debates
• Gender, Race, and Political Power
• Feminist Foreign Policy and Global Women’s Rights
• Gender and Healthcare Policy
• Gender Disparities in Education Access
• Gender, Technology, and Digital Divide
• Patriarchy and Its Effects on Political Systems
• Globalization and Politics
• The Impact of Globalization on National Sovereignty
• Trade Agreements and Their Political Implications
• Globalization and Income Inequality
• Environmental Policies in the Globalized World
• Cultural Diversity in a Globalized Society
• Globalization and Labor Movements
• Global Health Governance and Pandemics
• Migration and Political Responses to Globalization
• Technology and Global Political Connectivity
• Globalization and Political Populism
• Human Rights in a Globalized Context
• Globalization and the Spread of Political Ideas
• Global Supply Chains and Political Vulnerabilities
• Media and Information Flow in Global Politics
• Globalization and Terrorism Networks
• Transnational Corporations and Political Influence
• Globalization and Political Identity
• The Role of International Organizations in Managing Globalization
• Globalization and Climate Change Politics
• Globalization and Post-Pandemic Political Challenges
• Political Ideologies
• Liberalism and Its Contemporary Relevance
• Conservatism in Modern Political Thought
• Socialism and Its Variations in Different Countries
• Fascism and the Rise of Far-Right Ideologies
• Anarchism and Political Movements
• Marxism and Its Influence on Political Theory
• Environmentalism as a Political Ideology
• Feminism and Its Political Manifestations
• Populism as an Emerging Political Ideology
• Nationalism and Its Role in Contemporary Politics
• Multiculturalism and Political Pluralism
• Postcolonialism and Its Impact on Global Politics
• Postmodernism and Its Critique of Political Discourse
• Religious Political Ideologies and Fundamentalism
• Libertarianism and Minimalist Government
• Technological Utopianism and Political Change
• Eco-Socialism and Environmental Politics
• Identity Politics and Intersectional Ideologies
• Indigenous Political Thought and Movements
• Futurism and Political Visions of Tomorrow

Checks and Balances

• The Role of the Executive Branch in Checks and Balances
• Congressional Oversight and Accountability
• The Separation of Powers in Parliamentary Systems
• Checks and Balances in Local Government
• Media and Public Opinion as Checks on Government
• Bureaucratic Agencies and Their Role in Oversight
• The Balance of Power in Federal Systems
• The Role of Political Parties in Checks and Balances
• Checks and Balances in Authoritarian Regimes
• The Role of Interest Groups in Government Oversight
• The Influence of Lobbying on Checks and Balances
• The Role of the Courts in Presidential Accountability
• Checks and Balances in Times of National Crisis
• The Use of Veto Power in Checks and Balances
• Checks and Balances and the Protection of Civil Liberties
• The Role of Whistleblowers in Exposing Government Misconduct
• Checks and Balances and National Security Policies
• The Evolution of Checks and Balances in Modern Democracies
• Interest Groups and Lobbies
• The Influence of Corporate Lobbying on Public Policy
• Interest Groups and Campaign Finance in Politics
• Advocacy Groups and Their Impact on Legislative Agendas
• The Role of Unions in Interest Group Politics
• Environmental Organizations and Lobbying Efforts
• Identity-Based Interest Groups and Their Political Power
• Health Advocacy Groups and Healthcare Policy
• The Influence of Foreign Lobbying on U.S. Politics
• Interest Groups and Regulatory Capture
• Interest Groups in Comparative Politics
• The Use of Social Media in Interest Group Campaigns
• Gun Control Advocacy and Interest Group Dynamics
• Religious Organizations and Political Lobbying
• Interest Groups and Human Rights Advocacy
• Farming and Agricultural Interest Groups
• Interest Groups and Education Policy
• LGBTQ+ Advocacy and Political Representation
• Interest Groups and Criminal Justice Reform
• Veterans’ Organizations and Their Political Clout
• Interest Groups and Their Role in Shaping Public Opinion
• International Relations
• Theories of International Relations: Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism
• Power Politics and International Security
• The Role of Diplomacy in Conflict Resolution
• Multilateralism vs. Unilateralism in International Relations
• International Organizations and Their Influence on World Politics
• Global Governance and Challenges to Sovereignty
• Humanitarian Interventions and the Responsibility to Protect
• Non-State Actors in International Relations
• International Law and Its Application in Conflict Zones
• Arms Control Agreements and Nuclear Proliferation
• International Trade Agreements and Economic Diplomacy
• International Environmental Agreements and Climate Change
• Cybersecurity Threats in the Digital Age
• Refugee Crises and Forced Migration on the Global Stage
• Geopolitics of Energy Resources
• Peacekeeping Operations and Conflict Prevention
• Global Health Diplomacy and Pandemic Response
• The Role of Intelligence Agencies in International Relations
• The Changing Dynamics of U.S.-China Relations

International Security

• Cybersecurity Threats and Global Security
• Arms Control and Nuclear Non-Proliferation
• Regional Conflict and Security Implications
• Humanitarian Interventions and Security Dilemmas
• Intelligence Sharing and National Security
• Environmental Security and Resource Conflicts
• Non-State Actors in Global Security
• Maritime Security and Freedom of Navigation
• The Role of International Organizations in Global Security
• Military Alliances and Collective Defense
• Space Security and Militarization of Outer Space
• Cyber Warfare and State-Sponsored Hacking
• Security Challenges in Post-Conflict Zones
• Refugee Crises and Security Implications
• Emerging Technologies and Security Risks
• Energy Security and Geopolitical Tensions
• Food Security and Global Agricultural Policies
• Biological and Chemical Weapons Proliferation
• Climate Change and Security Threats

Latin American Politics

• Populism in Latin American Politics
• Drug Trafficking and Security Challenges
• Political Instability and Regime Changes
• Indigenous Movements and Political Representation
• Corruption Scandals and Governance Issues
• Environmental Politics and Conservation Efforts
• Social Movements and Protests in Latin America
• Economic Inequality and Poverty Reduction Strategies
• Human Rights Violations and Accountability
• The Role of the United States in Latin American Politics
• Regional Integration and Trade Agreements
• Gender Equality and Women in Politics
• Land Reform and Agrarian Policies
• Indigenous Rights and Land Conflicts
• Media Freedom and Political Discourse
• Migration Patterns and Regional Impacts
• Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Backsliding
• Drug Legalization Debates in Latin America
• Religious Influence in Politics
• Latin American Diplomacy and International Relations
• Law and Courts
• Judicial Independence and the Rule of Law
• Constitutional Interpretation and Originalism
• Supreme Court Decision-Making and Precedent
• Legal Ethics and Professional Responsibility
• Criminal Justice Reform and Sentencing Policies
• Civil Rights Litigation and Legal Activism
• International Law and Its Application in Domestic Courts
• Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms
• The Role of Judges in Shaping Public Policy
• Access to Justice and Legal Aid Programs
• Gender Bias in Legal Systems
• Intellectual Property Rights and Legal Challenges
• Immigration Law and Border Control
• Environmental Law and Sustainability
• Corporate Governance and Legal Compliance
• Privacy Rights in the Digital Age
• Family Law and Custody Disputes
• Law and Technology: Legal Issues in AI and Robotics
• Legal Education and Training of Lawyers
• Legal Pluralism and Customary Law Systems
• Legislative Studies
• The Role of Legislative Bodies in Policy-Making
• Parliamentary Systems vs. Presidential Systems
• Legislative Oversight and Government Accountability
• Party Politics and Legislative Behavior
• Committee Structures and Decision-Making Processes
• Electoral Systems and Their Impact on Legislation
• Minority Rights and Representation in Legislatures
• Lobbying and Interest Group Influence on Legislators
• Legislative Ethics and Codes of Conduct
• The Evolution of Legislative Bodies in Modern Democracies
• Legislative Responses to Crises and Emergencies
• Legislative Innovations and Reforms
• Legislative Responsiveness to Public Opinion
• Legislative Term Limits and Their Effects
• Gender Parity in Legislative Representation
• Legislative Coalitions and Majority Building
• Legislative Role in Budgetary Processes
• Legislative Oversight of Intelligence Agencies
• Subnational Legislatures and Regional Autonomy
• Comparative Analysis of Legislative Systems

Middle Eastern Politics

• The Arab Spring and Political Transformations
• Sectarianism and Conflict in the Middle East
• Authoritarianism and Political Repression
• The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and Peace Efforts
• Oil Politics and Resource-Driven Conflicts
• Terrorism and Insurgency in the Middle East
• Foreign Interventions and Proxy Wars
• Human Rights Abuses and Accountability
• Religious Politics and Extremism
• Migration and Refugees in the Middle East
• Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
• Political Islam and Islamist Movements
• Water Scarcity and Regional Tensions
• Media and Censorship in Middle Eastern States
• Kurdish Politics and Autonomy Movements
• Sectarianism and Its Impact on State Structures
• Economic Challenges and Youth Unemployment
• Environmental Issues and Sustainability
• Iran’s Role in Regional Politics
• Middle Eastern Diplomacy and Global Relations

Nation and State

• National Identity and Its Influence on Statehood
• Secession Movements and the Question of Statehood
• Stateless Nations and the Right to Self-Determination
• State-Building in Post-Conflict Zones
• Failed States and International Interventions
• Ethnic Nationalism and Nation-Building
• Federalism and Devolution of Powers
• State Symbols and Nationalism
• Nationalism and Economic Policies
• Colonial Legacy and the Formation of Nations
• Territorial Disputes and State Sovereignty
• Ethnic Minorities and Their Political Rights
• Globalization and the Erosion of Statehood
• Nationalism in the Era of Transnationalism
• Nationalist Movements and Regional Autonomy
• The Role of Education in Shaping National Identity
• National Symbols and Their Political Significance
• Migration and Its Impact on National Identity
• Cultural Diversity and Nation-Building Challenges
• The Role of Language in Defining Nationhood

Political Behavior

• Voter Turnout and Political Participation Rates
• Political Socialization and Civic Engagement
• Partisan Loyalty and Voting Behavior
• Political Trust and Public Opinion
• Political Apathy and Its Causes
• Political Mobilization Strategies
• Protest Movements and Activism
• Electoral Behavior and Decision-Making
• Political Communication and Information Sources
• Political Social Networks and Online Activism
• Political Behavior of Youth and Generational Differences
• Political Behavior of Minority Groups
• Gender and Political Participation
• Social Media Influence on Political Behavior
• Public Opinion Polling and Its Impact
• Political Psychology and Behavioral Analysis
• Political Behavior in Non-Democratic Systems
• Voting Behavior in Swing States
• Political Behavior in Times of Crisis
• Political Behavior Research Methodologies

Political Change

• Regime Change and Democratization
• Revolution and Political Transformation
• Transitional Justice and Post-Conflict Reconciliation
• Political Leadership and Change Initiatives
• Nonviolent Movements and Political Change
• Social Movements and Policy Reforms
• The Role of Technology in Political Change
• Political Change in Authoritarian Regimes
• Youth-Led Political Change Movements
• Resistance Movements and Their Strategies
• Cultural Movements and Political Change
• Environmental Movements and Policy Impact
• Economic Crisis and Political Change
• International Influence on Political Change
• Indigenous Movements and Political Empowerment
• Women’s Movements and Gender-Driven Change
• Grassroots Movements and Local Governance
• The Impact of Global Events on Political Change
• Political Change and Human Rights
• Comparative Studies of Political Change

Political Communication

• Media Influence on Political Attitudes
• Political Advertising and Campaign Strategies
• Political Rhetoric and Persuasion Techniques
• Social Media and Political Discourse
• Political Debates and Public Perception
• Crisis Communication and Political Leadership
• Media Ownership and Political Influence
• Propaganda and Information Warfare
• Fact-Checking and Media Accountability
• News Framing and Agenda Setting
• Political Satire and Public Opinion
• Political Communication in Multicultural Societies
• Crisis Communication and Government Response
• Public Relations and Political Image Management
• Political Talk Shows and Public Engagement
• The Role of Polling in Political Communication
• Speechwriting and Political Oratory
• Media Literacy and Critical Thinking
• Political Communication Ethics and Responsibility
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Political Communication

Political Concepts

• Democracy: Theories and Applications
• Justice and Fairness in Political Systems
• Power and Authority in Governance
• Liberty and Individual Rights
• Equality: Political, Social, and Economic Dimensions
• Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
• Sovereignty and the State
• Representation and Political Legitimacy
• Political Obligation and Consent
• Rights vs. Welfare: A Philosophical Debate
• The Common Good in Political Philosophy
• Social Contract Theories and Political Order
• Freedom of Speech and Political Discourse
• Political Ideals and Utopian Visions
• The Ethics of Political Decision-Making
• Anarchy and Political Order
• Nationalism and Patriotism as Political Concepts
• Political Realism vs. Idealism
• Human Dignity and Political Values
• Multiculturalism and Cultural Diversity in Politics

Political Economy

• Economic Policies and Political Decision-Making
• The Impact of Global Trade Agreements on National Economies
• Income Inequality and Political Consequences
• Taxation Policies and Political Debates
• Political Influence on Central Banks
• Economic Growth vs. Environmental Sustainability
• Government Regulation of Financial Markets
• Economic Crises and Political Responses
• Populism and Economic Policies
• Economic Development and Political Stability
• Corruption and Economic Performance
• Political Economy of Resource-Rich Nations
• International Trade Wars and Political Tensions
• Fiscal Policies and Government Budgets
• Labor Market Policies and Political Alignment
• Economic Ideologies and Political Parties
• Globalization and Income Redistribution
• Economic Populism and Public Opinion
• Economic Forecasting and Political Decision-Making
• Comparative Studies of Political Economies

Political Parties

• Party Systems and Electoral Politics
• Party Platforms and Policy Agendas
• Coalition Politics and Party Alliances
• Third Parties and Their Influence
• Party Funding and Campaign Finance
• Political Party Polarization
• Party Identification and Voter Behavior
• Party Primaries and Candidate Selection
• Populist Parties and Their Impact
• Minor Parties and Representation
• Party Discipline and Legislative Behavior
• Party Systems in Non-Democratic States
• Party Leadership and Ideological Shifts
• Party Membership and Activism
• Youth Participation in Political Parties
• Party Conventions and Political Strategy
• Party Mergers and Dissolutions
• Ethnic and Religious Parties in Multi-Cultural Societies
• Popularity of Anti-Establishment Parties
• Comparative Studies of Political Party Systems

Political Psychology

• Political Attitudes and Ideological Beliefs
• Personality Traits and Political Preferences
• Political Socialization and Identity Formation
• Political Trust and Distrust
• Group Psychology and Political Behavior
• The Role of Emotions in Political Decision-Making
• Cognitive Biases and Political Judgment
• Political Persuasion and Communication
• Political Polarization and Social Identity
• Fear and Political Behavior
• Voter Apathy and Psychological Factors
• Motivated Reasoning in Politics
• Political Stereotypes and Prejudices
• Political Leadership and Charisma
• Political Participation and Civic Psychology
• Mass Movements and Crowd Psychology
• Political Stress and Mental Health
• The Psychology of Political Extremism
• Political Tolerance and Intolerance
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Political Psychology

Political Theory

• Theories of Justice and Equality
• Democratic Theory and Political Legitimacy
• Social Contract Theories in Political Philosophy
• The Ethics of Political Leadership
• Political Authority and Obedience
• Rights and Liberties in Political Theory
• Political Utopias and Ideal Societies
• Power and Its Distribution in Political Thought
• Political Liberalism vs. Communitarianism
• The Role of Consent in Governance
• Political Anarchism and Stateless Societies
• The Philosophy of Political Revolution
• Political Philosophy and Human Rights
• Theories of Political Representation
• Feminist Political Theory and Gender Equality
• Cosmopolitanism and Global Justice
• Political Conservatism and Traditionalism
• Postmodernism and Deconstruction in Political Theory
• Critical Theory and Social Change
• Comparative Political Theories

Politics and Society

• The Societal Impact of Welfare Policies
• Environmental Policies and Sustainable Societies
• Social Movements and Their Political Goals
• Education Policies and Social Equity
• Healthcare Policies and Public Health
• Criminal Justice Policies and Social Inequality
• Immigration Policies and Integration Challenges
• Social Media and Political Activism
• Identity Politics and Social Cohesion
• Economic Policies and Income Distribution
• Civil Society and Political Engagement
• Social Capital and Political Participation
• Family Policies and Social Values
• Multiculturalism and Cultural Diversity
• Social Inclusion and Exclusion in Politics
• Urbanization and Political Dynamics
• Social Stratification and Political Behavior
• Aging Populations and Policy Implications
• Social Norms and Political Change
• Cross-Cultural Studies of Politics and Society

Politics of Oppression

• Political Repression and Human Rights Violations
• The Role of Mass Media in Oppression
• Authoritarian Regimes and Dissent
• Gender-Based Oppression and Activism
• State Surveillance and Privacy Rights
• Indigenous Rights and Anti-Oppression Movements
• Political Exile and Dissident Communities
• Censorship and Freedom of Expression
• Political Violence and Resistance
• Ethnic Conflict and Oppressed Minorities
• The Psychology of Oppression and Compliance
• Political Persecution and International Responses
• Refugees and Asylum Politics
• Oppression in Cyber-Space
• Socioeconomic Oppression and Inequality
• Historical Perspectives on Political Oppression
• Anti-Oppression Legislation and Human Rights Advocacy
• Discrimination and the Law
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Oppression
• Comparative Studies of Oppressive Regimes

Public Administration

• Bureaucratic Accountability and Transparency
• Public Sector Reform and Modernization
• Administrative Ethics and Integrity
• Performance Measurement in Public Administration
• E-Government and Digital Transformation
• Public-Private Partnerships in Service Delivery
• Administrative Decision-Making and Policy Implementation
• Leadership and Change Management in the Public Sector
• Civil Service Systems and Human Resource Management
• Administrative Law and Legal Challenges
• Emergency Management and Crisis Response
• Local Government and Municipal Administration
• Public Budgeting and Financial Management
• Public Administration and Social Welfare Programs
• Environmental Administration and Sustainability
• Healthcare Administration and Policy
• Public Diplomacy and International Relations
• Administrative Responsiveness and Citizen Engagement
• Public Administration in Developing Nations
• Comparative Public Administration Studies

Public Policy

• Policy Analysis and Evaluation
• The Role of Think Tanks in Policy Formulation
• Policy Implementation Challenges and Solutions
• Policy Advocacy and Lobbying
• Healthcare Policy and Access to Medical Services
• Education Policy and Curriculum Development
• Social Welfare Policies and Poverty Alleviation
• Environmental Policy and Conservation Efforts
• Technology and Innovation Policy
• Immigration Policy and Border Control
• Security and Defense Policy
• Transportation and Infrastructure Policy
• Energy Policy and Sustainability
• Foreign Aid and Development Policies
• Taxation Policy and Revenue Generation
• Criminal Justice Policy and Sentencing Reform
• Trade Policy and Economic Growth
• Drug Policy and Harm Reduction Strategies
• Social and Cultural Policy Initiatives
• Comparative Policy Studies

Race/Ethnicity, and Politics

• Racial Discrimination and Political Activism
• Ethnic Conflict and Identity Politics
• Minority Rights and Representation
• Racial Profiling and Policing
• Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity
• Indigenous Rights and Autonomy Movements
• Racial and Ethnic Voting Patterns
• The Role of Race in Political Campaigns
• Immigration Policies and Racial Implications
• Intersectionality and Multiple Identities
• Ethnic Diversity and Social Cohesion
• Slavery, Colonialism, and Historical Injustices
• Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare
• Education and Racial Achievement Gaps
• Media Representation and Stereotyping
• Hate Crimes and Extremist Movements
• Reparations and Compensation for Historical Wrongs
• Cultural Appropriation and Identity Politics
• Multiculturalism and Integration Policies
• Comparative Studies of Race and Politics

Religion and Politics

• The Role of Religious Institutions in Politics
• Religious Freedom and Secularism
• Faith-Based Advocacy and Social Change
• Religion and International Relations
• Religious Extremism and Terrorism
• Religion and Gender Equality
• Religious Minorities and Discrimination
• Political Parties and Religious Affiliation
• Religion and Environmental Ethics
• Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding
• Religious Ethics and Public Policy
• Religion in Education and Curriculum Debates
• Charitable and Faith-Based Organizations
• Religious Symbols and Public Spaces
• Sacred Texts and Political Interpretations
• Pilgrimage and Political Pilgrimage
• Religion and Human Rights
• Religious Conversion and Apostasy
• Faith and Political Leadership
• Comparative Studies of Religion and Politics

Electoral Systems

• The Impact of Electoral Systems on Representation
• Proportional Representation vs. First-Past-the-Post
• Gerrymandering and Electoral Manipulation
• Electronic Voting and Election Security
• Ranked Choice Voting Systems
• Voter Turnout and Participation Rates
• Minority Representation in Electoral Systems
• Campaign Finance and Electoral Outcomes
• Voter Registration and Access to Voting
• Electoral Reforms and Political Parties
• Voting Behavior and Demographic Patterns
• Gender and Electoral Politics
• Electoral Systems in Post-Conflict Nations
• Hybrid Electoral Systems
• Electoral Justice and Redistricting
• Political Parties and Coalition Building
• Election Observation and International Standards
• Electoral Systems and Ethnic Conflict
• Voter Suppression and Disenfranchisement
• Electoral Systems in Non-Democratic Regimes

Rights and Freedoms

• Freedom of Speech and Censorship
• Civil Liberties in Times of Crisis
• Religious Freedom and Freedom of Worship
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Advocacy
• The Right to Protest and Assembly
• Racial Profiling and Discrimination
• Right to Bear Arms and Gun Control
• Refugee Rights and Asylum Seekers
• Indigenous Rights and Land Sovereignty
• Rights of the Accused and Due Process
• Access to Healthcare as a Human Right
• Education as a Fundamental Right
• Economic Rights and Income Inequality
• Children’s Rights and Child Protection
• Disability Rights and Accessibility
• Prisoner Rights and Criminal Justice Reform
• Freedom of the Press and Media Ethics
• Comparative Human Rights Frameworks

Science/Technology and Politics

• Cybersecurity and Election Interference
• Surveillance Technologies and Privacy
• Artificial Intelligence in Governance
• Internet Regulation and Net Neutrality
• Space Exploration and International Cooperation
• Ethical Implications of Biotechnology
• Climate Science and Environmental Policy
• Digital Diplomacy and International Relations
• Technology in Disaster Management
• Data Protection and Online Privacy
• Social Media and Political Influence
• Bioethics and Genetic Engineering
• Ethical Considerations in Artificial Intelligence
• Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation
• Ethical Dilemmas in Scientific Research
• Quantum Computing and National Security
• Robotics and the Future of Labor
• E-Government Initiatives and Digital Services
• Environmental Ethics and Sustainability
• Technology Transfer in Developing Nations

War and Peace

• Conflict Resolution and Diplomacy
• Peacebuilding and Post-Conflict Reconstruction
• Arms Control and Non-Proliferation Agreements
• Nuclear Deterrence and Arms Races
• Cyber Warfare and International Law
• Refugee Crises and Forced Displacement
• United Nations Peacekeeping Missions
• War Crimes and International Tribunals
• Security Alliances and Collective Defense
• Civil Wars and State Fragmentation
• Weapons of Mass Destruction and Global Security
• Peace Accords and Conflict Resolution
• Conflict Journalism and Media Coverage
• Civilian Protection and Human Rights in Conflict Zones
• The Ethics of Humanitarian Aid
• Regional Conflicts and Regional Organizations
• Conflict-Induced Migration and Refugee Policies
• The Role of Religion in Peace and Conflict

This comprehensive list merely scratches the surface of the intriguing topics available within the realm of political science. From the intricacies of constitutional law to the dynamics of Asian politics and the complexities of comparative analysis, the field of political science offers a rich tapestry of subjects for your research pursuits. We encourage you to explore these topics, refine your interests, and embark on an academic journey that not only expands your knowledge but also contributes to the broader discourse on politics and governance. As you navigate this list, remember that the key to a successful research paper is your passion for the subject matter. Choose a topic that resonates with you, and let your curiosity drive your exploration of political science research paper topics.

Browse More Political Science Topics:

• African Politics and Society
• American Politics and Society
• Asian Politics and Society
• Culture, Media, and Language
• European Politics and Society
• Federalism and Local Politics
• Institutions and Checks and Balances
• International Security and Arms Control
• Latin American Politics and Society

The Range of Political Science Research Paper Topics

Introduction

Political science, the systematic study of politics and government, provides valuable insights into the complex world of governance, policy-making, and international relations. For students of political science, selecting the right research paper topic can be the key to unlocking a deeper understanding of these intricate issues. This page serves as a comprehensive guide to the rich array of Political Science Research Paper Topics available, offering a detailed overview of the field and highlighting its significant contributions to society.

Exploring Political Science

Political science plays a pivotal role in deciphering the dynamics of the modern world. By analyzing the behavior of individuals, groups, and institutions in political settings, it seeks to unravel the complexities of governance and decision-making. This discipline’s significance extends far beyond the classroom, as it directly informs public policy, governance structures, and international relations.

The research conducted within political science serves as the foundation for crafting effective policies and addressing pressing global challenges. Governments and organizations worldwide rely on the expertise of political scientists to provide evidence-based recommendations and solutions. Whether it’s designing social welfare programs, analyzing international conflicts, or studying voter behavior, political science research is at the forefront of shaping the way societies function.

The Essence of Political Science

Political science is the intellectual foundation of modern political analysis and policy-making. It serves as a bridge between theory and practice, helping individuals understand not only the “what” but also the “why” and “how” of political phenomena. By examining political behavior, institutions, and ideologies, this field equips students with the tools to navigate the complexities of governance and to critically evaluate the policies that shape our lives.

One of the defining features of political science is its interdisciplinary nature. It draws from various disciplines, including history, economics, sociology, psychology, and philosophy, to offer a holistic understanding of political processes. For students passionate about examining the social and political forces that shape our world, political science is a vibrant and intellectually rewarding field of study.

The Relevance of Political Science Research

Political science research is not confined to academic ivory towers; it has a profound impact on society. The evidence-based insights generated by political scientists guide governments, inform public discourse, and influence policy decisions. Research on topics such as voting behavior helps in understanding democratic processes, while studies on international relations contribute to strategies for peacekeeping and diplomacy.

Political scientists also play a crucial role in examining and addressing contemporary global challenges. They explore topics such as climate change, migration, and human rights, offering valuable insights that can shape policies and international cooperation. The relevance of political science research extends to issues of governance, accountability, and the promotion of democratic values.

Range of Research Paper Topics

Within the vast realm of political science, there exists a diverse range of research paper topics that cater to different interests and perspectives. These topics encompass various subfields, each shedding light on distinct aspects of political behavior, institutions, and ideologies. Here, we delve into some of the intriguing areas that can serve as the foundation for your research endeavors:

Democracy and Democratization : The study of democratic systems and processes is a cornerstone of political science. Research in this area may explore topics such as the challenges of democratization in emerging nations, the role of media in shaping public opinion, or the impact of electoral systems on representation.

Political Corruption : Understanding and combating political corruption is critical for the integrity of governments worldwide. Research topics may range from analyzing corruption’s economic and social consequences to exploring strategies for prevention and enforcement.

Globalization and Politics : In an increasingly interconnected world, globalization profoundly influences political dynamics. Research in this area can examine issues like the impact of globalization on national sovereignty, the role of international organizations, or the ethics of global trade.

Political Ideologies : The realm of political ideologies delves into the philosophies and belief systems that underpin political movements and parties. Topics may include the examination of specific ideologies such as liberalism, conservatism, or socialism, and their historical evolution.

Science/Technology and Politics : The intersection of science, technology, and politics is a fertile ground for research. This area covers topics like the influence of digital platforms on political discourse, ethical considerations in artificial intelligence, and the role of technology in election campaigns.

War and Peace : The study of international conflict and peacekeeping efforts remains a central concern in political science. Research may focus on issues like the causes of armed conflicts, peace negotiation strategies, or the ethics of humanitarian interventions.

Religion and Politics : Religion’s impact on political behavior and policies is a subject of ongoing debate. Research in this area can explore the role of religious institutions in politics, the influence of faith on voting patterns, or interfaith relations in diverse societies.

Race/Ethnicity, and Politics : The intersection of race, ethnicity, and politics raises critical questions about representation and equality. Research topics may encompass racial disparities in political participation, the impact of identity politics, or the dynamics of minority-majority relations.

Public Policy and Administration : The field of public policy and administration involves the study of how policies are formulated, implemented, and evaluated. Topics may include healthcare policy, environmental regulations, or the role of bureaucracy in shaping public programs.

International Relations : International relations examine interactions between states and the complexities of the global order. Research topics may focus on diplomacy, international organizations, global conflicts, or the challenges of international cooperation.

Human Rights and Justice : The study of human rights and justice explores ethical dilemmas and legal frameworks. Research may encompass issues like refugee rights, humanitarian law, or the role of international courts in addressing human rights abuses.

Environmental Politics : In an era of environmental challenges, political science research on environmental politics is vital. Topics may cover climate change policy, sustainable development, or the politics of natural resource management.

Evaluating Political Science Research Topics

As students explore these diverse topics, it’s essential to consider various factors when choosing a research paper topic. Here are some key considerations:

• Personal Interest : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the subject matter will fuel your research efforts and maintain your motivation throughout the project.
• Relevance : Consider the relevance of your chosen topic to current political debates, policies, or global issues. Research that addresses pressing concerns often has a more significant impact.
• Feasibility : Assess the availability of data, research materials, and access to experts or primary sources. Ensure that your chosen topic is researchable within your constraints.
• Originality : While it’s not necessary to reinvent the wheel, aim to contribute something new or offer a fresh perspective on existing debates or issues.
• Scope : Define the scope of your research clearly. Determine whether your topic is too broad or too narrow and adjust it accordingly.
• Methodology : Think about the research methods you’ll use. Will you conduct surveys, interviews, content analysis, or use historical data? Ensure that your chosen methods align with your topic.
• Ethical Considerations : Be mindful of ethical considerations, especially when dealing with sensitive topics or human subjects. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical standards.

Political science, as a multifaceted discipline, holds immense relevance in today’s world. Its research not only informs governance and policy-making but also empowers individuals to engage critically with the complex political issues of our time. The spectrum of Political Science Research Paper Topics is vast, reflecting the diversity of political phenomena and ideas.

As students embark on their research journeys in political science, they have the opportunity to make meaningful contributions to our understanding of governance, society, and international relations. By choosing topics that resonate with their interests and align with the pressing issues of the day, students can truly make a difference in the field of political science.

In closing, we encourage students to explore the wealth of Political Science Research Paper Topics, delve deep into their chosen areas of study, and harness the power of knowledge to effect positive change in the political landscape.

Choosing Political Science Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research topic is a crucial step in the journey of academic inquiry. It sets the tone for your entire research paper, influencing its direction, depth, and impact. When it comes to political science research paper topics, the stakes are high, as the field encompasses a wide range of subjects that can shape our understanding of governance, policy-making, and international relations. In this section, we’ll explore ten valuable tips to help you choose political science research paper topics that align with your interests, resonate with current debates, and provide ample research opportunities.

10 Tips for Choosing Political Science Research Paper Topics:

• Follow Your Passion : Begin your quest for the right research topic by considering your interests. Passion for a subject often fuels motivation and ensures your engagement throughout the research process. Whether it’s human rights, international diplomacy, or environmental policy, choose a topic that genuinely excites you.
• Stay Informed : Keep abreast of current political events, debates, and emerging issues. Reading newspapers, academic journals, and reputable websites can help you identify contemporary topics that are both relevant and research-worthy. Being informed about current affairs is essential for crafting timely and impactful research.
• Explore Gaps in Existing Literature : Conduct a thorough literature review to identify gaps or areas where further research is needed. This not only helps you understand the existing discourse but also provides insights into unexplored avenues for your research. Building on or critiquing existing research can contribute significantly to the field.
• Consider Policy Relevance : Think about the practical relevance of your chosen topic. How does it connect to real-world policy challenges? Research that addresses pressing policy issues tends to have a more substantial impact and can attract the attention of policymakers and practitioners.
• Delve into Comparative Studies : Comparative politics offers a wealth of research opportunities by allowing you to examine political systems, policies, or issues across different countries or regions. Comparative studies can yield valuable insights into the impact of context and culture on political outcomes.
• Narrow or Broaden Your Focus : Be mindful of the scope of your research topic. Some topics may be too broad to cover comprehensively in a single paper, while others may be too narrow, limiting available research material. Strike a balance by defining your research question or problem statement clearly.
• Consult Your Professors and Peers : Don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your professors or peers. They can offer valuable insights, suggest relevant literature, and help you refine your research question. Collaboration and mentorship can significantly enhance your research experience.
• Evaluate Feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your chosen topic. Consider the availability of data, research materials, and access to experts or primary sources. Ensure that your research is doable within your constraints, including time and resources.
• Embrace Interdisciplinary Perspectives : Political science often intersects with other disciplines, such as sociology, economics, or environmental science. Explore interdisciplinary angles to enrich your research. Collaborating with experts from related fields can lead to innovative insights.
• Ethical Considerations : When selecting a research topic, be mindful of ethical considerations, especially if your research involves human subjects or sensitive issues. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical standards and obtains the necessary approvals.

Choosing the right political science research paper topic is a dynamic process that requires reflection, exploration, and critical thinking. By following these ten tips, you can navigate the landscape of political science topics with confidence. Remember that your research topic is not set in stone; it can evolve as you delve deeper into your studies and gain new insights.

As you embark on your research journey, keep in mind that the topics you choose have the potential to contribute to our understanding of the political world, inform policy decisions, and shape the future of governance. Embrace the opportunity to explore, question, and discover, for it is through research that we illuminate the path to progress in the field of political science.

Choose your topics wisely, engage in meaningful inquiry, and let your passion for political science drive your pursuit of knowledge.

How to Write a Political Science Research Paper

Writing a research paper in political science is a distinctive journey that allows you to explore complex issues, develop critical thinking skills, and contribute to the body of knowledge in the field. Effective research paper writing is not only about conveying your ideas clearly but also about constructing a compelling argument supported by rigorous evidence. In this section, we’ll delve into ten valuable tips that will help you craft high-quality political science research papers, enabling you to communicate your findings effectively and make a meaningful impact.

10 Tips for Writing Political Science Research Papers:

• Thoroughly Understand the Assignment : Before you start writing, carefully read and understand your assignment guidelines. Clarify any doubts with your professor, ensuring you have a clear grasp of the expectations regarding format, length, and content.
• Choose a Strong Thesis Statement : Your thesis statement is the heart of your research paper. It should be clear, concise, and arguable. Ensure that it presents a central argument or question that your paper will address.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : A robust research paper relies on well-sourced evidence. Explore academic journals, books, reputable websites, and primary sources related to your topic. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for accurate citations.
• Structure Your Paper Effectively : Organize your paper logically, with a coherent introduction, body, and conclusion. Each section should flow smoothly, building upon the previous one. Use headings and subheadings to guide your reader.
• Craft a Captivating Introduction : Your introduction should grab the reader’s attention and provide context for your research. It should introduce your thesis statement and outline the main points you will address.
• Develop a Compelling Argument : Present a clear and well-reasoned argument throughout your paper. Each paragraph should support your thesis statement, with evidence and analysis that reinforces your position.
• Cite Your Sources Properly : Accurate citations are crucial in political science research papers. Follow the citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) specified in your assignment guidelines. Pay careful attention to in-text citations and the bibliography.
• Edit and Proofread Diligently : Writing is rewriting. After completing your initial draft, take the time to revise and edit your paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professors.
• Stay Objective and Avoid Bias : Political science research requires objectivity. Avoid personal bias and ensure that your analysis is based on evidence and sound reasoning. Acknowledge counterarguments and address them respectfully.
• Craft a Strong Conclusion : Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in the conclusion. Discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study. Leave your reader with a lasting impression.

Writing a political science research paper is not just an academic exercise; it’s an opportunity to engage with critical issues, contribute to knowledge, and develop essential skills. By applying these ten tips, you can navigate the complexities of research paper writing with confidence.

As you embark on your journey to craft high-quality papers, remember that effective communication is the key to making a meaningful impact in the realm of political science. Your research has the potential to shape discussions, influence policies, and contribute to our collective understanding of the political world.

Embrace the writing process, celebrate your achievements, and view each paper as a stepping stone in your academic and intellectual growth. Whether you’re exploring global diplomacy, dissecting political ideologies, or analyzing policy decisions, your research papers can be a force for positive change in the world of politics.

As you tackle the challenges and opportunities of political science research, remember that the knowledge you gain and the skills you develop are valuable assets that will serve you well in your academic and professional journey. Write with passion, rigor, and integrity, and let your research papers be a testament to your commitment to advancing the field of political science.

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• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : At iResearchNet, we understand the importance of subject expertise. Our team consists of highly qualified writers with advanced degrees in political science, ensuring that your research papers are handled by experts who have a deep understanding of the field.
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We feel pleasure to announce the next regular issue of the  Indian Journal of Society and Politics  Vol 11 (02):2024 proposed in July  2024. For this issue, we invite research articles, review articles, short communications, articles on current issues, and book reviews for the publication.

• The deadline for the submission is  May 31, 2024. Please submit your articles before the deadline. 
• First published online on July 31, 2024, and the print version will be available from August 15, 2024.

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To answer this question, Badrinathan and co-authors Simon Chauchard and Niloufer Siddiqui field simultaneous, in-person experiments in Punjab, Pakistan, and Uttar Pradesh, India, regions where anti-minority vigilantism has been preceded by misinformation. They find that correcting rumors reduces support for vigilantism and increases the desire to hold vigilantes accountable. This effect is not attenuated by prior distrust toward out-groups. By contrast, information about state and elite behavior does not always shape attitudes toward vigilantism. These findings provide evidence that support for vigilantism can be reduced through the dissemination of credible information, even in polarized settings.

Read the full article here .

BADRINATHAN S, CHAUCHARD S, SIDDIQUI N. Misinformation and Support for Vigilantism: An Experiment in India and Pakistan.  American Political Science Review . Published online 2024:1-19. doi:10.1017/S0003055424000790

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Bengaluru: Hundreds of students, science teachers, researchers, and professors gathered at Bengaluru’s Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research campus to celebrate CNR Rao’s 90th birthday on 30 June. It’s the institute’s very own ‘Teacher’s Day,’ celebrated for 17 years in honour of the famed Indian scientist and co-founder of JNCASR. But this year is special—the institute has opened a large gallery dedicated to honouring his life’s work and achievements.

“My birthday was alright,” said a modest Rao, whose work has been foundational to many advances in materials science over the last few decades, including  carbon nanotubes .

A stroke a couple of years ago has left the structural chemist with a severe speech impediment, but his academic tenacity is undiminished. At 90, Rao shows no inclination to ‘slow down’. When he’s not immersed in institute work, he’s busy publishing papers and collaborating with his wife, author and Kannada science communicator Indumati Rao.

The new gallery is covered from top to bottom with his numerous awards from multiple countries, along with photographs with legendary scientists like CV Raman and Vikram Sarabhai, Indian prime ministers he worked with as a scientific advisor, and heads of states of Russia, Japan, UK, France, as well as Pope John Paul 2 and the late Queen Elizabeth II of England.

It’s a testament to the dazzling career of one of India’s most prolific scientists. Rao has received the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, the Hughes Medal, the Royal Medal, the National Order of Scientific Merit, the Padma Vibhushan, and the Padma Bhushan. He is only the third scientist after CV Raman and APJ Abdul Kalam to be awarded the Bharat Ratna.

But Rao, who has authored over 1,500 papers and more than 50 books, is more interested in the next big breakthroughs and the institute’s research processes .  He sits in his office behind a large desk full of papers and files arranged by his staff. His aide and special projects coordinator, AN Jayachandra, translates his responses by his side.

“He has been publishing papers. That hasn’t stopped. We come here every day at 9.30 am and work here for two hours. He works with students closely and meets people daily,” said his wife Indumati.

The two have offices near each other. Indumati works on science exposure projects for children, while the professor remains immersed in institute work, as he has been for decades. Together, they want to make science more accessible in rural Karnataka.

Prof Rao is firm that young researchers should focus on their science without being bogged down by administrative tasks like securing financial grants.

Also Read: Ahmedabad lab is now predicting India’s climate future. It’s using ‘atomic time machines’

Spreading the word

The couple have a shared passion— spreading scientific awareness among rural children. To further this cause, they established the CNR Rao Education Foundation in 2005.

“He decided a few years ago that he wants to communicate science to young people,” said Indumati. “And my dream was to do something for rural children. So, we started this foundation for that purpose, and to also give back to the scientific community.”

Indumati is currently busy translating a piece of science writing from English to Kannada, which will be distributed across rural schools.

The Foundation also built new gallery dedicated to Rao’s work. Alongside this building, there is an interactive science museum, envisioned by the scientist himself

Visitors can take part in table-top science experiments, view large-scale models of atomic structures, and learn about the lives of famous chemists through history.

Madam Rao and Professor Rao, as they’re affectionately known, are also believers in integrating culture with science, particularly through music. Rao is deeply interested in the context in which science is understood in the world, as well as the intricate connections between science, the laws of nature, arts, and creativity. His idea of interdisciplinary learning extends beyond scientific research to include experiences like music.

Faculty don’t have to conform to any structure. They are free to choose the area of their work, and aid is facilitated to them on par with international standards. They can pursue their science at their free will, and that is a signature of this institute -AN Jayachandra, special projects coordinator

“To be a complete person, it is not enough to do science only. There must also be exposure to culture, like music,” said Indumati, speaking for the two of them. “Every year, we invite a well-known artist who performs a concert at the institute for students and researchers, and musicians talk about their theory.”

The Raos are patrons of Hindustani classical music, and have followed a dinnertime tradition every day for decades— after their evening meal, they play a music recording or a playlist for 1.5 hours. No one talks during the “concert”.

A culture of academic freedom

Within academia, Prof Rao is known for his clear vision as the head of JNCASR. He is firm that young researchers should focus on their science without being bogged down by administrative tasks like securing financial grants and other procedural necessities.

“Funding is always a challenge, but his problem-solving mentality has been a boon for everyone here. No matter the project, when we tell Professor Rao that there is a problem, there’s a solution a few days later,” said Jaishri Sanwal, a geophysicist at the institute.

Sanwal, who works in an office full of rocks and fossils, explained that she doesn’t hold a teaching position, nor does she have a permanent one, but she has been working as a research scientist at JNCASR for two decades. Her research centres on studying paleo-earthquakes in the Himalayas for risk assessment and recreating ancient environments across India to help prepare for the future.

“The geodyamics unit here (now called geosciences unit), is very active here and we can feel Professor Rao’s legacy,” she said.

As an administrator Rao’s ability to identify impactful science and back it up with resources is widely recognised by faculty and researchers.

One can achieve when one contributes without self-interest. Once in a way, bright research ideas come in. Then we have made it -CNR Rao

“The researchers here work on frontier areas of science,” said Rao’s aide Jayachandra. “Faculty don’t have to conform to any structure. They are free to choose the area of their work, and aid is facilitated to them on par with international standards. They can pursue their science at their free will, and that is a signature of this institute.”

The green JNCASR campus, which covers about 27 acres in the suburb of Jakkur, is not as expansive as many other leading scientific institutes, but it packs a punch. It’s research units cover a range of specialities, including materials, engineering mechanics, evolutionary biology, theoretical physics, and new chemistry, all bound together through interdisciplinary research.

Unlike other major research institutes with countless departments, work here is structured into a mere seven to nine major departments, with less than 30 researchers. But within these departments, researchers, scientists, and engineers have been working on everything from nanodevices and degenerative diseases to virology and ancient Indian climate.

The close-knit campus environment facilitates spontaneous research ideas due to the way researchers get to interact with each other, including over casual chats, according to Ravi Manjithaya, head of neurosciences.

“Prof Rao has always been ahead of his time, and still is,” he said. “We do cutting-edge research at par with the rest of the world, even though we are surprisingly one of the smallest research institutes in the world. We consistently rank high, sometimes to our own surprise, and one of the main reasons is how so many departments are pushed to work together so closely.”

Last year, just like every other year, JNCASR was ranked in the top 30 of India’s National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF), the only autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology to achieve this. In international research rankings too, the small research institute consistently punches above its weight, with a high point being a global ranking of 7 by scientific publisher Nature in 2019.

The research at the institute is often innovative. Biotechnologist Dr. Sheeba Vasu, for example, works on biological clocks and what determines human sleep patterns.

“We live on earth, we have 24-hour clocks. However different organisms fit into various temporal niches beyond just mere response to sunlight. We ask in our labs,  using flies , how clocks evolve biologically,” summed up Vasu, whose lab works at the intersection of neuroscience, biotechnology, and genetics.

On the administrative side, JNCASR’s faculty and staff hold a deep respect for Rao’s leadership, especially his policy of unburdening scientists from bureaucracy and paperwork.

“At what institute will a senior registrar and administrator be sitting like this, helping with interviews and arranging appointments,” Manjithaya laughed, pointing at Jayachandra seated across from him.

Also Read: ‘We are scientists, not beggars’. Indian Science Congress is in a war against govt

Legacy and future

Rao’s seminal work on solid state chemistry, materials, metal oxides and conductivity has led to advances in the fields of superconductivity, hybrid materials, nanomaterials, insulators, and more.

He is passionate about fostering stronger interdisciplinary research, both within India and internationally. His seven-decade-long experience in the Indian scientific community has only made him more optimistic.

As the Raos and the institute plan for their future, the next batch of PhD students has already arrived. Each department is hosting orientation sessions where the faculty introduce the students to the campus and their to-be colleagues. Around 30 young scholars, from all over the country, fresh from universities, introduce themselves to the people they will spend the next five years with, walking around campus, and looking inside laboratories with stars in their eyes.

“I am not disappointed by academia,” Rao said. We must work hard. One can achieve when one contributes without self-interest. Once in a way, bright research ideas come in. Then we have made it.”

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'AI Scientist' Writes Science Papers Without Human Input. Why That's Concerning

These are some big claims. Do they stack up? And even if they do, would an army of AI scientists churning out research papers with inhuman speed really be good news for science?

Wes Cockx & Google DeepMind / Better Images of AI, CC BY.

Scientific discovery is one of the most sophisticated human activities. First, scientists must understand the existing knowledge and identify a significant gap. Next, they must formulate a research question and design and conduct an experiment in pursuit of an answer. Then, they must analyse and interpret the results of the experiment, which may raise yet another research question.

Can a process this complex be automated? Last week, Sakana AI Labs announced the creation of an “AI scientist” – an artificial intelligence system they claim can make scientific discoveries in the area of machine learning in a fully automated way.

Using generative large language models (LLMs) like those behind ChatGPT and other AI chatbots, the system can brainstorm, select a promising idea, code new algorithms, plot results, and write a paper summarising the experiment and its findings, complete with references. Sakana claims the AI tool can undertake the complete lifecycle of a scientific experiment at a cost of just US$15 per paper – less than the cost of a scientist's lunch.

How a computer can ‘do science'

A lot of science is done in the open, and almost all scientific knowledge has been written down somewhere (or we wouldn't have a way to “know” it). Millions of scientific papers are freely available online in repositories such as arXiv and PubMed .

LLMs trained with this data capture the language of science and its patterns. It is therefore perhaps not at all surprising that a generative LLM can produce something that looks like a good scientific paper – it has ingested many examples that it can copy.

What is less clear is whether an AI system can produce an interesting scientific paper. Crucially, good science requires novelty.

But is it interesting?

Scientists don't want to be told about things that are already known. Rather, they want to learn new things, especially new things that are significantly different from what is already known. This requires judgement about the scope and value of a contribution.

The Sakana system tries to address interestingness in two ways. First, it “scores” new paper ideas for similarity to existing research (indexed in the Semantic Scholar repository). Anything too similar is discarded.

Second, Sakana's system introduces a “peer review” step – using another LLM to judge the quality and novelty of the generated paper. Here again, there are plenty of examples of peer review online on sites such as openreview.net that can guide how to critique a paper. LLMs have ingested these, too.

AI may be a poor judge of AI output

Feedback is mixed on Sakana AI's output. Some have described it as producing “ endless scientific slop ”.

Even the system's own review of its outputs judges the papers weak at best. This is likely to improve as the technology evolves, but the question of whether automated scientific papers are valuable remains.

The ability of LLMs to judge the quality of research is also an open question. My own work (soon to be published in Research Synthesis Methods ) shows LLMs are not great at judging the risk of bias in medical research studies, though this too may improve over time.

Sakana's system automates discoveries in computational research, which is much easier than in other types of science that require physical experiments. Sakana's experiments are done with code, which is also structured text that LLMs can be trained to generate.

AI tools to support scientists, not replace them

AI researchers have been developing systems to support science for decades. Given the huge volumes of published research, even finding publications relevant to a specific scientific question can be challenging.

Specialised search tools make use of AI to help scientists find and synthesise existing work. These include the above-mentioned Semantic Scholar, but also newer systems such as Elicit , Research Rabbit , scite and Consensus .

Text mining tools such as PubTator dig deeper into papers to identify key points of focus, such as specific genetic mutations and diseases, and their established relationships. This is especially useful for curating and organising scientific information.

Machine learning has also been used to support the synthesis and analysis of medical evidence, in tools such as Robot Reviewer . Summaries that compare and contrast claims in papers from Scholarcy help to perform literature reviews.

All these tools aim to help scientists do their jobs more effectively, not to replace them.

AI research may exacerbate existing problems

While Sakana AI states it doesn't see the role of human scientists diminishing, the company's vision of “a fully AI-driven scientific ecosystem” would have major implications for science.

One concern is that, if AI-generated papers flood the scientific literature, future AI systems may be trained on AI output and undergo model collapse . This means they may become increasingly ineffectual at innovating.

However, the implications for science go well beyond impacts on AI science systems themselves.

There are already bad actors in science, including “paper mills” churning out fake papers . This problem will only get worse when a scientific paper can be produced with US$15 and a vague initial prompt.

The need to check for errors in a mountain of automatically generated research could rapidly overwhelm the capacity of actual scientists. The peer review system is arguably already broken , and dumping more research of questionable quality into the system won't fix it.

Science is fundamentally based on trust. Scientists emphasise the integrity of the scientific process so we can be confident our understanding of the world (and now, the world's machines) is valid and improving.

( Author: Karin Verspoor , Dean, School of Computing Technologies, RMIT University, RMIT University )

( Disclosure Statement: Karin Verspoor receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Medical Research Future Fund, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and Elsevier BV. She is affiliated with BioGrid Australia and is a co-founder of the Australian Alliance for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare)

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The Republican Plan to Challenge a Harris Victory

How a right-wing takeover of an obscure, unelected board in georgia could swing the election..

Hosted by Michael Barbaro

Featuring Nick Corasaniti

Produced by Olivia Natt Asthaa Chaturvedi and Eric Krupke

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At the Democratic National Convention, party officials are celebrating polls showing that Kamala Harris is now competitive with Donald Trump in every major swing state across the country.

But in one of those swing states, Republicans have laid the groundwork to challenge a potential Harris victory this fall, by taking over an obscure, unelected board.

Nick Corasaniti, a Times reporter who focuses on voting and elections, explains.

On today’s episode

Nick Corasaniti , a reporter covering national politics for The New York Times.

Background reading

The unelected body that shapes voting rules in Georgia has a new conservative majority, whose members question the state’s 2020 results. They now have new power to influence the results in 2024 .

Kamala Harris and Donald Trump are in close races across Arizona, Georgia, Nevada and North Carolina , crucial swing states that Mr. Trump had seemed poised to run away with.

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The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Michael Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

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Nick Corasaniti is a Times reporter covering national politics, with a focus on voting and elections. More about Nick Corasaniti

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