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Fourth of July – Independence Day

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 24, 2024 | Original: December 16, 2009

The Fourth of July—also known as Independence Day or July 4th—has been a federal holiday in the United States since 1941, but the tradition of Independence Day celebrations goes back to the 18th century and the American Revolution . On July 2nd, 1776, the Continental Congress voted in favor of independence, and two days later delegates from the 13 colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence, a historic document drafted by Thomas Jefferson . From 1776 to the present day, July 4th has been celebrated as the birth of American independence, with festivities ranging from fireworks , parades and concerts to more casual family gatherings and barbecues. The Fourth of July 2023 is on Tuesday, July 4.

History of Independence Day

When the initial battles in the Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, few colonists desired complete independence from Great Britain, and those who did were considered radical.

By the middle of the following year, however, many more colonists had come to favor independence, thanks to growing hostility against Britain and the spread of revolutionary sentiments such as those expressed in the bestselling pamphlet “ Common Sense ,” published by Thomas Paine in early 1776.

On June 7, when the Continental Congress met at the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, the Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced a motion calling for the colonies’ independence.

Amid heated debate, Congress postponed the vote on Lee’s resolution, but appointed a five-man committee—including Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts , Roger Sherman of Connecticut , Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and Robert R. Livingston of New York —to draft a formal statement justifying the break with Great Britain .

Did you know? John Adams believed that July 2nd was the correct date on which to celebrate the birth of American independence, and would reportedly turn down invitations to appear at July 4th events in protest. Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on July 4, 1826—the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

On July 2nd, the Continental Congress voted in favor of Lee’s resolution for independence in a near-unanimous vote (the New York delegation abstained, but later voted affirmatively). On that day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail that July 2 “will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival” and that the celebration should include “Pomp and Parade…Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other.”

On July 4th, the Continental Congress formally adopted the Declaration of Independence , which had been written largely by Jefferson. Though the vote for actual independence took place on July 2nd, from then on the 4th became the day that was celebrated as the birth of American independence.

Early Fourth of July Celebrations and Traditions  

In the pre-Revolutionary years, colonists had held annual celebrations of the king’s birthday, which traditionally included the ringing of bells, bonfires, processions and speechmaking. By contrast, during the summer of 1776 some colonists celebrated the birth of independence by holding mock funerals for King George III as a way of symbolizing the end of the monarchy’s hold on America and the triumph of liberty.

Festivities including concerts, bonfires, parades and the firing of cannons and muskets usually accompanied the first public readings of the Declaration of Independence, beginning immediately after its adoption. Philadelphia held the first annual commemoration of independence on July 4, 1777, while Congress was still occupied with the ongoing war.

George Washington issued double rations of rum to all his soldiers to mark the anniversary of independence in 1778, and in 1781, several months before the key American victory at the Battle of Yorktown , Massachusetts became the first state to make July 4th an official state holiday.

After the Revolutionary War, Americans continued to commemorate Independence Day every year, in celebrations that allowed the new nation’s emerging political leaders to address citizens and create a feeling of unity. By the last decade of the 18th century, the two major political parties—the Federalist Party and Democratic-Republicans—that had arisen began holding separate Fourth of July celebrations in many large cities.

Fourth of July Fireworks

The first fireworks were used as early as 200 BC. The tradition of setting off fireworks on the 4 of July began in Philadelphia on July 4, 1777, during the first organized celebration of Independence Day. Ship’s cannon fired a 13-gun salute in honor of the 13 colonies . The Pennsylvania Evening Post reported: “at night there was a grand exhibition of fireworks (which began and concluded with thirteen rockets) on the Commons, and the city was beautifully illuminated.” That same night, the Sons of Liberty set off fireworks over Boston Common.

Fourth of July Becomes a Federal Holiday

The tradition of patriotic celebration became even more widespread after the War of 1812 , in which the United States again faced Great Britain. In 1870, the U.S. Congress made July 4th a federal holiday; in 1941, the provision was expanded to grant a paid holiday to all federal employees.

Over the years, the political importance of the holiday would decline, but Independence Day remained an important national holiday and a symbol of patriotism.

Falling in mid-summer, the Fourth of July has since the late 19th century become a major focus of leisure activities and a common occasion for family get-togethers, often involving fireworks and outdoor barbecues. The most common symbol of the holiday is the American flag, and a common musical accompaniment is “ The Star-Spangled Banner ,” the national anthem of the United States.

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Feasting, drinking and blowing things up: The history of US Independence Day

Nice weather, family barbeques, parades, fireworks and red, white and blue everything ­­­– Americans are preparing to celebrate Independence Day this weekend with time-honored and beloved traditions.

Known now as a day of patriotism and enjoying time off from work, the Fourth of July began the journey to becoming a quintessential American holiday in 1776, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Though 12 of the 13 American colonies had already approved the resolution by July 2, 1776, even prompting John Adams to write his daughter with predictions of future July Second festivities, the document declaring independence from Britain wasn’t officially adopted until July 4.

Some Americans began celebrating the very same year, though the practice wouldn’t become widespread until the aftermath of the War of 1812.

Congress finally passed a bill making Independence Day a federal holiday on June 28, 1870. In 1941, the law was amended to make it a paid holiday for federal employees.

Though some traditions associated with the Fourth of July have changed or disappeared over time – hosting mock funerals for the king of England, for example – many have remained true to their roots in the almost 250 years since the declaration was signed.

If you’ve ever wondered why we associate exploding colors in the sky and feasting on outdoor meals with celebrating America’s independence, read on to learn about the origins of our favorite July Fourth festivities.  

Ultimate Fourth of July playlist: Your guide to the ultimate Fourth of July music playlist, from 'God Bless America' to 'Firework'

Fireworks displays are perhaps the most iconic of all Fourth of July revelries. The first celebration came in earnest on July 4, 1777, described on July 5 in the Pennsylvania Evening Post as a demonstration of “joy and festivities.”

Ships “dressed in the gayest manner, with the colors of the United States and streamers displayed” approached the city and fired off 13 cannon shots, one for each colony-turned-state. Later in the evening, 13 fireworks were set off in the city commons in Philadelphia and Boston, which the Evening Post described as a “grand exhibition of fireworks … and the city was beautifully illuminated.”

According to Dr. Tyler Putman , senior manager of gallery interpretation at the Museum of the American Revolution , fireworks had been used in the colonies before 1776, but not in such grand fashion.

“You would have seen fireworks at a lot of festivities, celebrations, anniversaries, you know, things like the king's birthday or big events, but they often were not enormous, launched-in-the-sky fireworks,” he told USA TODAY.

“People would build these kind of structures and frameworks that would then catch on fire, or parts of them would launch off, and often they would be in certain shapes, like a bunch of stars or a dancing person … kind of like a Burning Man sort of thing.”

It wasn’t until the 18 th century, said Putman, that fireworks were perfected and began to resemble the explosive rockets we know today.

Fireworks divide Americans: America's right to bear fireworks continues to make American Independence Day divisive

Visit any city or town on the U.S. map on the Fourth of July and you could find a parade of some sort making its way through Main Street. Mentions of parades, another tradition that harks closely back to Revolution-era origins, can be found in the earliest correspondences about the newly minted but still unofficial holiday.

In a letter John Adams wrote to his daughter , Abigail Adams, on July 2, 1776, he described what would later be known as Independence Day, predicting it would become “the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. − I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival.”

Though Adams mistakenly asserted the holiday would be commemorated on the second of the month as opposed to the fourth, he was correct in his predictions of the merrymaking to follow.

“It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more,” he wrote.

What's open on July 4th? Starbucks, McDonald's, Target, Walmart open; Costco closed

Back then, parades looked markedly different from the ones we attend today.

During the Revolutionary War, parades were generally reserved for the military, with armies marching the streets to reach their destinations. It wasn’t until years after the war, in the late 1700s to early 1800s, said Putman, that parades began to look more like what we would recognize today.

When parades began to appear as part of annual celebrations as opposed to one-off events, they didn’t yet feature the marching bands and firetrucks we’re familiar with but instead were full of groups of normal people from town. The city’s butchers, for example, would walk together as one group, and shipbuilders would construct massive floats to be pulled down the street by horses.

“Sometimes you read about parades where, like, in Philadelphia, tens of thousands of people are in the parade and you kind of wonder who is left to watch the parade,” Putman said. “There are so many people, if all the shipwright and the shoemakers and the grocers are all already marching the parade, it's mostly just kids, probably, who are like, ‘Well, I guess I'll wait as this 10,000-person parade goes by.’”

Barbeques and picnics

Independence Day falling in early July is probably reason enough to enjoy a meal outside to take advantage of the warm summer weather. The urge to fire up the grill and lay a picnic blanket out on the grass, however, can also be tied back to original holiday celebrations.

“The really interesting thing about the Fourth of July is that it then spawned all of these semi-public or private celebrations," Putman said. "So, you might go watch the parade and then you have your family barbecue. In the late 1700s, 1800s, people might go out for a big public event, like a giant picnic or parade, but then they'll go back to taverns or family homes.”

Drinking was certainly a prominent component for many Americans, some of whom would go to the local pub and propose toasts in the name of things like independence, the Constitution and the president. George Washington himself even issued double rations of rum to his soldiers on the 1778 and 1781 anniversaries in observation of the day.

Grilling tips: Grilling your burgers wrong could be risky. Here's how to do it right

Because what we now know as barbeque food began as a form of cooking brought to the Americas by enslaved Africans, it had not yet become a staple of the national diet. Instead, revelers of the day probably would have attended a pig roast or seafood boil. It wasn’t until about 100 years after independence that barbeque went from being a food for poor, enslaved people to being popularized on a national scale, Putman said.

Feasting and drinking "was true of really elite people but also really poor, common, even enslaved people, not just on the Fourth of July, but other holidays would use this as a chance to kind of build community and think about what it meant to be an American.” 

Red, white and blue everything

Walk into a grocery store in July today and you will be bombarded by red, white and blue plastered on everything from cocktail napkins to beach towels. In the early days of American independence, however, the colors were not yet representative of a flag that was recognized as universally and uniquely American. In fact, it wasn't until June 1777 that Congress even approved the first official iteration of the flag , which changed many times between inception and the final design created in 1960.

“During the Revolutionary War, flags were something that had kind of a functional purpose: They fly above a fort or they're on the top mast of a ship,” Putman said. “It's really not until the American Civil War, the 1860s, that most people started to use the flag in more personal ways.”

Before then, you would never see the average person, for example, hanging a flag in front of their house, he said. The tensions of the Civil War prompted people to begin adopting iconography of flags, which not only delineated opposing sides of the war but stood as a symbol of different things for individual Americans, like emancipation for Black Americans. During this era, the flag began to appear in places other than flying in front of government buildings, such as on shirts.

This use of the flag’s colors on everyday items grew in popularity in the 1900s, said Putman, and has become even more common in the past few decades. The 50-star flag we now recognize was not unveiled until 1960, after Hawaii and Alaska joined the union in 1959.

More on the Fourth

Looking for more ways to celebrate the Fourth? Check out our guides on some of the best holiday deals , tips for keeping everyone in the family safe and tricks to make the most of the day .

• Independence Day

Unsung Heroines: Indian Women's Crucial Role In The Quit India Movement

The Indian Freedom Struggle was a story of unmatched bravery, sacrifice, and tenacity. Women have played a significant role in the history of independence; they stepped out of their homes, participated in protests, faced arrests, stood in the hardest times, and even suffered brutalities, yet remained undeterred. Their contributions not only fueled the movement but also left an indelible mark on the fight for India's freedom.

The Quit India Movement or भारत छोड़ो आंदोलन, is one of the remarkable incidents in the history of Indian independence and women have played a major role in this epic battle. On August 8, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi delivered his famous “Do or Die” speech at August Kranti Maidan in Bombay (Mumbai). Aruna Asaf Ali, a prominent revolutionary figure, was there hoisting the national flag on the ground, and this led to the official announcement of the Quit India Movement.

Gandhi and other leaders were arrested during the Quit India Movement, which angered people. They took to the streets, destroying railway lines, and police stations were ablaze. Thereafter, women and new leaders emerged as torchbearers of the movement. Unfortunately, the women involved in the movement have suffered a lot; the British brutally tortured them, broke their homes, and subjected women to violence, abuse, and rape. Although hundreds of women took part in the protests, some significant figures stand out in the history of women's involvement in the Quit India Movement.

Indian women who emerged as heroes during the Quit India Movement

Aruna asaf ali.

Aruna Asaf Ali, also known as the Grand Old Lady, is an iconic revolutionary from Punjab who played a noteworthy role in the Quit India Movement. She was known for raising the Indian flag to support the Quit India Movement. She was also involved in the Salt Satyagraha movement and other notable protests. She first heard the slogan 'Inquilab Zindabad' when her husband Asaf Ali, a Congress leader visited Sardar Bhagat Singh in Lahore Jail as Gandhi's chosen counsel and emissary.

The British government imprisoned her for her engagement in the freedom-fighting movement. Her bravery and disobedience became emblematic of India's quest for independence. She actively participated in many protests, underground operations, and social work, contributing significantly to India's freedom. She also earned the title of heroine of the 1942 movement.

A young (22-year-old) activist and law student, Usha Mehta, has become the first radio jockey, the first young lady who is brave enough to establish Congress Radio, an underground radio station that defied British censorship and kept the spirit of resistance alive. Usha played a crucial role in the Quit India Movement of 1942. Her radio station has alerted every Indian about the latest developments in the struggle and has also broadcast patriotic songs such as Vande Mataram. It broadcasts news that has been suppressed by government news agencies. This clandestine operation provided vital information and inspiration to the masses, making her a symbol of courage and determination in the fight for independence. Her contribution to India's freedom is remembered as a testament to the power of the human spirit against oppression.

Matangini Hazra

Matangini Hazra, another staunch Gandhian famously known as the courageous octogenarian, played a significant role in the Indian independence. Her most notable act of defiance occurred during the Quit India Movement, when she led a procession of 6, 000 volunteers, mostly women, to the Tamluk Police Station despite British firing. She was shot three times in her procession and reportedly died with the tricolor in her hands and Vande Mataram on her lips. Her martyrdom sparked revolutionary fever in Bengal, and she is revered as a symbol of steadfast heroism and patriotism.

Kanaklata Barua

In the history of struggle, Kanaklata Barua will always be remembered for her sacrifice. A young Assamese girl who was just 17 was shot and became an iconic martyr during the freedom struggle. She was a part of the famous Quit India Movement and the Mrityu Bahini (death squad). She led a possession, intending to unfurl the national flag, but was shot by the police. She was stopped by the police in charge and she said: “ You do your duty and let me do mine” . She has not only bravely confronted the police officer but also become a symbol of unwavering patriotism and courage, inspiring countless others to join the epic struggle for freedom.

Sucheta Kriplani

Sucheta Kriplani, a prominent figure in the history of Independence founded the All India Mahila Congress in 1940. Kriplani was India’s first female chief minister, a key figure in the Quit India Movement, organising underground activities and teaching women to resist. The British arrested her for her involvement in the freedom movement. She was also a professor of constitutional history, exhibiting great leadership and opening the path for future female politicians. On August 15, 1947, she sang "Vande Mataram" in the Constituent Assembly. She is an amazing woman, liberation warrior, and politician in India. Her commitment to the motherland has marked her as one of the movement’s key female fighters.

We can’t even imagine this peace and this freedom without them. We can't ignore how these brave ladies have continuously fought in the hardest times and given their sweat and blood for the motherland. We are all aware of the prominent leader’s contribution to independence. Still, very few of us talk about women and their significant role in the history of independence.

We must not forget the roles of these women and others who are not highlighted in this article; they have contributed and inspired a lot in this freedom struggle. Women not only helped to abolish British rule in India, but they also laid the groundwork for a more inclusive and fair society after independence. Their heroism, resilience, and steadfast dedication to the cause of freedom are still remembered and celebrated as an important part of India's rich history of struggle and triumph.

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Independence day 2024: simple essay writing tips and samples for school and college students.

Independence Day 2024 Essay Tips: Celebrated annually on August 15th, India's Independence Day in 2024 marks 77 years since gaining freedom from British rule in 1947. The day features flag hoisting, patriotic songs, and cultural performances. Schools and public institutions commemorate the event, highlighting the contributions of freedom fighters and fostering national pride.

Independence Day 2024 Essay Writing Tips

Independence day 2024: sample essays, read more news on.

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How to watch the 2024 Olympics closing ceremony

The Olympic rings are seen on the Eiffel Tower during the 2024 Summer Olympics, Tuesday, Aug. 6, 2024, in Paris, France. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

The balloon carrying the Olympic cauldron rises above Tuileries Garden as the Eiffel Tower stands in the distance during the 2024 Summer Olympics, Tuesday, Aug. 6, 2024, in Paris, France. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

France’s Jules Bouyer competes in the men’s 3m springboard diving preliminary at the 2024 Summer Olympics, Tuesday, Aug. 6, 2024, in Saint-Denis, France. (AP Photo/Lee Jin-man)

Simone Biles, of the United States, competes during the women’s artistic gymnastics individual balance beam finals at Bercy Arena at the 2024 Summer Olympics, Monday, Aug. 5, 2024, in Paris, France. (AP Photo/Francisco Seco)

Leon Marchand from France competes in a men’s 4x100-meter medley relay heat at the Summer Olympics in Nanterre, France, Saturday, Aug. 3, 2024. (AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko)

United States’ LeBron James flexes after scoring during a men’s basketball game against Brazil at the 2024 Summer Olympics, Tuesday, Aug. 6, 2024, in Paris, France. (AP Photo/Michael Conroy)

A’ja Wilson (9), of the United States, grabs a rebound over Marie Guelich (11), of Germany, in a women’s basketball game at the 2024 Summer Olympics, Sunday, Aug. 4, 2024, in Villeneuve-d’Ascq, France. (AP Photo/Mark J. Terrill)

Noah Lyles, of the United States, reacts following the men’s 200-meters final at the 2024 Summer Olympics, Thursday, Aug. 8, 2024, in Saint-Denis, France.(AP Photo/Petr David Josek)

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PARIS (AP) — The Paris Olympics are coming to a close on Sunday.

U.S. gymnastics star Simone Biles made a triumphant return, taking her Olympic gold tally to seven. French swimmer Léon Marchand won five medals — four of them gold — fulfilling comparisons to Michael Phelps. Armand “Mondo” Duplantis won another gold medal, but the real show for the 80,000 at the Stade de France — which will be the site of Sunday’s closing ceremony — was when he broke the world record for the ninth time.

Sha’Carri Richardson rallied in the anchor leg to lead the U.S. to a win in the 4x100 meter relay and claim her first Olympic gold medal.

Boxer Imane Khelif of Algeria won a gold medal after being in the spotlight because of misconceptions about her gender , and breaking made its Olympic debut with Japan’s b-girl Ami taking the gold.

Organizers of the Paris Games have, for the most part, successfully showcased the beauty of the French capital. Beach volleyball has taken place next to the Eiffel Tower . Holding events in the polluted Seine River , however, has proven more difficult.

Who is winning the 2024 Olympics?

The United States leads the medal standings overall, with China next in line. Australia, Japan, Britain and France are vying for the third spot. Here is Saturday’s Olympic schedule of events , as well as the overall list of medal winners .

What’s the last event of the 2024 Olympics?

The women’s basketball gold medal game between the United States and France is the last event before the closing ceremony. It’s scheduled to tip off at 3:30 p.m. CEST (9:30 a.m. EDT) at Bercy Arena.

When is the 2024 Olympics closing ceremony?

The closing ceremony is scheduled to begin at 9 p.m. CEST (3 p.m. EDT) on Sunday at Stade de France just north of Paris. It’s expected to last until 11:15 p.m. CEST (5:15 p.m. EDT).

What will happen during the closing ceremony?

It will feature traditional highlights, including the athletes’ parade and the handover of the Olympic flag to the organizers of the 2028 Los Angeles Games . H.E.R., the five-time Grammy winner , is expected to sing the U.S. national anthem live at the Stade de France as part of the handover. There will be a medal presentation ceremony — for the women’s marathon from earlier in the day.

2024 Paris Olympics:

• What to know about the closing ceremony : A skydiving Tom Cruise and performances from Billie Eilish, the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Paris Olympics mainstay Snoop Dogg highlighted the French capital’s au revoir to the Olympics.
• Indelible images : AP photographers pick their favorite images from the Paris Olympics .
• Who won the 2024 Olympics?: See which countries tied for the most gold medals in Paris, and who exceeded expectations.
• When are the next Summer Games? The Olympics will always have Paris . But next up for the Summer Games: Los Angeles 2028 . See how the City of Angels is preparing to follow the City of Light.

It’s a more traditional setting after the Seine River was used for the audacious opening ceremony , but don’t expect it to be dull. It features the same artistic director — Thomas Jolly. Organizers said in a recent statement that it will include “over a hundred performers, acrobats, dancers and circus artists.” There will be musical performances and “the participation of world-renowned singers will complete the picture. ... Part of the show will take place in the air, while the giant sets, costumes and spectacular lighting effects will take spectators on a journey through time, both past and future.”

Jolly added: “It’s a very visual, very choreographic, very acrobatic show with an operatic dimension to give a great visual fresco and say goodbye to athletes from all over the world.”

How can I watch the closing ceremony?

It will air on NBC and Peacock.

AP Summer Olympics: https://apnews.com/hub/2024-paris-olympic-games

America's Founding Documents

The Declaration of Independence: A History

Nations come into being in many ways. Military rebellion, civil strife, acts of heroism, acts of treachery, a thousand greater and lesser clashes between defenders of the old order and supporters of the new--all these occurrences and more have marked the emergences of new nations, large and small. The birth of our own nation included them all. That birth was unique, not only in the immensity of its later impact on the course of world history and the growth of democracy, but also because so many of the threads in our national history run back through time to come together in one place, in one time, and in one document: the Declaration of Independence.

Moving Toward Independence

The clearest call for independence up to the summer of 1776 came in Philadelphia on June 7. On that date in session in the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall), the Continental Congress heard Richard Henry Lee of Virginia read his resolution beginning: "Resolved: That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved."

The Lee Resolution was an expression of what was already beginning to happen throughout the colonies. When the Second Continental Congress, which was essentially the government of the United States from 1775 to 1788, first met in May 1775, King George III had not replied to the petition for redress of grievances that he had been sent by the First Continental Congress. The Congress gradually took on the responsibilities of a national government. In June 1775 the Congress established the Continental Army as well as a continental currency. By the end of July of that year, it created a post office for the "United Colonies."

In August 1775 a royal proclamation declared that the King's American subjects were "engaged in open and avowed rebellion." Later that year, Parliament passed the American Prohibitory Act, which made all American vessels and cargoes forfeit to the Crown. And in May 1776 the Congress learned that the King had negotiated treaties with German states to hire mercenaries to fight in America. The weight of these actions combined to convince many Americans that the mother country was treating the colonies as a foreign entity.

One by one, the Continental Congress continued to cut the colonies' ties to Britain. The Privateering Resolution, passed in March 1776, allowed the colonists "to fit out armed vessels to cruize [sic] on the enemies of these United Colonies." On April 6, 1776, American ports were opened to commerce with other nations, an action that severed the economic ties fostered by the Navigation Acts. A "Resolution for the Formation of Local Governments" was passed on May 10, 1776.

At the same time, more of the colonists themselves were becoming convinced of the inevitability of independence. Thomas Paine's Common Sense, published in January 1776, was sold by the thousands. By the middle of May 1776, eight colonies had decided that they would support independence. On May 15, 1776, the Virginia Convention passed a resolution that "the delegates appointed to represent this colony in General Congress be instructed to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent states."

It was in keeping with these instructions that Richard Henry Lee, on June 7, 1776, presented his resolution. There were still some delegates, however, including those bound by earlier instructions, who wished to pursue the path of reconciliation with Britain. On June 11 consideration of the Lee Resolution was postponed by a vote of seven colonies to five, with New York abstaining. Congress then recessed for 3 weeks. The tone of the debate indicated that at the end of that time the Lee Resolution would be adopted. Before Congress recessed, therefore, a Committee of Five was appointed to draft a statement presenting to the world the colonies' case for independence.

The Committee of Five

The committee consisted of two New England men, John Adams of Massachusetts and Roger Sherman of Connecticut; two men from the Middle Colonies, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and Robert R. Livingston of New York; and one southerner, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. In 1823 Jefferson wrote that the other members of the committee "unanimously pressed on myself alone to undertake the draught [sic]. I consented; I drew it; but before I reported it to the committee I communicated it separately to Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams requesting their corrections. . . I then wrote a fair copy, reported it to the committee, and from them, unaltered to the Congress." (If Jefferson did make a "fair copy," incorporating the changes made by Franklin and Adams, it has not been preserved. It may have been the copy that was amended by the Congress and used for printing, but in any case, it has not survived. Jefferson's rough draft, however, with changes made by Franklin and Adams, as well as Jefferson's own notes of changes by the Congress, is housed at the Library of Congress.)

Jefferson's account reflects three stages in the life of the Declaration: the document originally written by Jefferson; the changes to that document made by Franklin and Adams, resulting in the version that was submitted by the Committee of Five to the Congress; and the version that was eventually adopted.

On July 1, 1776, Congress reconvened. The following day, the Lee Resolution for independence was adopted by 12 of the 13 colonies, New York not voting. Immediately afterward, the Congress began to consider the Declaration. Adams and Franklin had made only a few changes before the committee submitted the document. The discussion in Congress resulted in some alterations and deletions, but the basic document remained Jefferson's. The process of revision continued through all of July 3 and into the late morning of July 4. The Declaration had been officially adopted.

The Declaration of Independence is made up of five distinct parts: the introduction; the preamble; the body, which can be divided into two sections; and a conclusion. The introduction states that this document will "declare" the "causes" that have made it necessary for the American colonies to leave the British Empire. Having stated in the introduction that independence is unavoidable, even necessary, the preamble sets out principles that were already recognized to be "self-evident" by most 18th- century Englishmen, closing with the statement that "a long train of abuses and usurpations . . . evinces a design to reduce [a people] under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security." The first section of the body of the Declaration gives evidence of the "long train of abuses and usurpations" heaped upon the colonists by King George III. The second section of the body states that the colonists had appealed in vain to their "British brethren" for a redress of their grievances. Having stated the conditions that made independence necessary and having shown that those conditions existed in British North America, the Declaration concludes that "these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved."

Although Congress had adopted the Declaration submitted by the Committee of Five, the committee's task was not yet completed. Congress had also directed that the committee supervise the printing of the adopted document. The first printed copies of the Declaration of Independence were turned out from the shop of John Dunlap, official printer to the Congress. After the Declaration had been adopted, the committee took to Dunlap the manuscript document, possibly Jefferson's "fair copy" of his rough draft. On the morning of July 5, copies were dispatched by members of Congress to various assemblies, conventions, and committees of safety as well as to the commanders of Continental troops. Also on July 5, a copy of the printed version of the approved Declaration was inserted into the "rough journal" of the Continental Congress for July 4. The text was followed by the words "Signed by Order and in Behalf of the Congress, John Hancock, President. Attest. Charles Thomson, Secretary." It is not known how many copies John Dunlap printed on his busy night of July 4. There are 26 copies known to exist of what is commonly referred to as "the Dunlap broadside," 21 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions, and 3 by private owners. (See Appendix A.)

The Engrossed Declaration

On July 9 the action of Congress was officially approved by the New York Convention. All 13 colonies had now signified their approval. On July 19, therefore, Congress was able to order that the Declaration be "fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile [sic] of 'The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America,' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress."

Engrossing is the process of preparing an official document in a large, clear hand. Timothy Matlack was probably the engrosser of the Declaration. He was a Pennsylvanian who had assisted the Secretary of the Congress, Charles Thomson, in his duties for over a year and who had written out George Washington's commission as commanding general of the ContinentalArmy. Matlack set to work with pen, ink, parchment, and practiced hand, and finally, on August 2, the journal of the Continental Congress records that "The declaration of independence being engrossed and compared at the table was signed." One of the most widely held misconceptions about the Declaration is that it was signed on July 4, 1776, by all the delegates in attendance.

John Hancock, the President of the Congress, was the first to sign the sheet of parchment measuring 24¼ by 29¾ inches. He used a bold signature centered below the text. In accordance with prevailing custom, the other delegates began to sign at the right below the text, their signatures arranged according to the geographic location of the states they represented. New Hampshire, the northernmost state, began the list, and Georgia, the southernmost, ended it. Eventually 56 delegates signed, although all were not present on August 2. Among the later signers were Elbridge Gerry, Oliver Wolcott, Lewis Morris, Thomas McKean, and Matthew Thornton, who found that he had no room to sign with the other New Hampshire delegates. A few delegates who voted for adoption of the Declaration on July 4 were never to sign in spite of the July 19 order of Congress that the engrossed document "be signed by every member of Congress." Nonsigners included John Dickinson, who clung to the idea of reconciliation with Britain, and Robert R. Livingston, one of the Committee of Five, who thought the Declaration was premature.

Parchment and Ink

Over the next 200 years, the nation whose birth was announced with a Declaration "fairly engrossed on parchment" was to show immense growth in area, population, economic power, and social complexity and a lasting commitment to a testing and strengthening of its democracy. But what of the parchment itself? How was it to fare over the course of two centuries?

In the chronicle of the Declaration as a physical object, three themes necessarily entwine themselves: the relationship between the physical aging of the parchment and the steps taken to preserve it from deterioration; the relationship between the parchment and the copies that were made from it; and finally, the often dramatic story of the travels of the parchment during wartime and to its various homes.

Chronologically, it is helpful to divide the history of the Declaration after its signing into five main periods, some more distinct than others. The first period consists of the early travels of the parchment and lasts until 1814. The second period relates to the long sojourn of the Declaration in Washington, DC, from 1814 until its brief return to Philadelphia for the 1876 Centennial. The third period covers the years 1877-1921, a period marked by increasing concern for the deterioration of the document and the need for a fitting and permanent Washington home. Except for an interlude during World War II, the fourth and fifth periods cover the time the Declaration rested in the Library of Congress from 1921 to 1952 and in the National Archives from 1952 to the present.

Early Travels, 1776-1814

Once the Declaration was signed, the document probably accompanied the Continental Congress as that body traveled during the uncertain months and years of the Revolution. Initially, like other parchment documents of the time, the Declaration was probably stored in a rolled format. Each time the document was used, it would have been unrolled and re-rolled. This action, as well as holding the curled parchment flat, doubtless took its toll on the ink and on the parchment surface through abrasion and flexing. The acidity inherent in the iron gall ink used by Timothy Matlack allowed the ink to "bite" into the surface of the parchment, thus contributing to the ink's longevity, but the rolling and unrolling of the parchment still presented many hazards.

After the signing ceremony on August 2, 1776, the Declaration was most likely filed in Philadelphia in the office of Charles Thomson, who served as the Secretary of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1789. On December 12, threatened by the British, Congress adjourned and reconvened 8 days later in Baltimore, MD. A light wagon carried the Declaration to its new home, where it remained until its return to Philadelphia in March of 1777.

On January 18, 1777, while the Declaration was still in Baltimore, Congress, bolstered by military successes at Trenton and Princeton, ordered the second official printing of the document. The July 4 printing had included only the names of John Hancock and Charles Thomson, and even though the first printing had been promptly circulated to the states, the names of subsequent signers were kept secret for a time because of fear of British reprisals. By its order of January 18, however, Congress required that "an authentic copy of the Declaration of Independency, with the names of the members of Congress subscribing to the same, be sent to each of the United States, and that they be desired to have the same put upon record." The "authentic copy" was duly printed, complete with signers' names, by Mary Katherine Goddard in Baltimore.

Assuming that the Declaration moved with the Congress, it would have been back in Philadelphia from March to September 1777. On September 27, it would have moved to Lancaster, PA, for 1 day only. From September 30, 1777, through June 1778, the Declaration would have been kept in the courthouse at York, PA. From July 1778 to June 1783, it would have had a long stay back in Philadelphia. In 1783, it would have been at Princeton, NJ, from June to November, and then, after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the Declaration would have been moved to Annapolis, MD, where it stayed until October 1784. For the months of November and December 1784, it would have been at Trenton, NJ. Then in 1785, when Congress met in New York, the Declaration was housed in the old New York City Hall, where it probably remained until 1790 (although when Pierre L'Enfant was remodeling the building for the convening of the First Federal Congress, it might have been temporarily removed).

In July 1789 the First Congress under the new Constitution created the Department of Foreign Affairs and directed that its Secretary should have "the custody and charge of all records, books and papers" kept by the department of the same name under the old government. On July 24 Charles Thomson retired as Secretary of the Congress and, upon the order of President George Washington, surrendered the Declaration to Roger Alden, Deputy Secretary of Foreign Affairs. In September 1789 the name of the department was changed to the Department of State. Thomas Jefferson, the drafter of the Declaration, returned from France to assume his duties as the first Secretary of State in March of 1790. Appropriately, those duties now included custody of the Declaration.

In July 1790 Congress provided for a permanent capital to be built among the woodlands and swamps bordering the Potomac River. Meanwhile, the temporary seat of government was to return to Philadelphia. Congress also provided that "prior to the first Monday in December next, all offices attached to the seat of the government of the United States" should be removed to Philadelphia. The Declaration was therefore back in Philadelphia by the close of 1790. It was housed in various buildings--on Market Street, at Arch and Sixth, and at Fifth and Chestnut.

In 1800, by direction of President John Adams, the Declaration and other government records were moved from Philadelphia to the new federal capital now rising in the District of Columbia. To reach its new home, the Declaration traveled down the Delaware River and Bay, out into the ocean, into the Chesapeake Bay, and up the Potomac to Washington, completing its longest water journey.

For about 2 months the Declaration was housed in buildings built for the use of the Treasury Department. For the next year it was housed in one of the "Seven Buildings" then standing at Nineteenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. Its third home before 1814 was in the old War Office Building on Seventeenth Street.

In August 1814, the United States being again at war with Great Britain, a British fleet appeared in the Chesapeake Bay. Secretary of State James Monroe rode out to observe the landing of British forces along the Patuxent River in Maryland. A message from Monroe alerted State Department officials, in particular a clerk named Stephen Pleasonton, of the imminent threat to the capital city and, of course, the government's official records. Pleasonton "proceeded to purchase coarse linen, and cause it to be made into bags of convenient size, in which the gentlemen of the office" packed the precious books and records including the Declaration.

A cartload of records was then taken up the Potomac River to an unused gristmill belonging to Edgar Patterson. The structure was located on the Virginia side of the Potomac, about 2 miles upstream from Georgetown. Here the Declaration and the other records remained, probably overnight. Pleasonton, meanwhile, asked neighboring farmers for the use of their wagons. On August 24, the day of the British attack on Washington, the Declaration was on its way to Leesburg, VA. That evening, while the White House and other government buildings were burning, the Declaration was stored 35 miles away at Leesburg.

The Declaration remained safe at a private home in Leesburg for an interval of several weeks--in fact, until the British had withdrawn their troops from Washington and their fleet from the Chesapeake Bay. In September 1814 the Declaration was returned to the national capital. With the exception of a trip to Philadelphia for the Centennial and to Fort Knox during World War II, it has remained there ever since.

Washington, 1814-76

The Declaration remained in Washington from September 1814 to May 1841. It was housed in four locations. From 1814 to 1841, it was kept in three different locations as the State Department records were shifted about the growing city. The last of these locations was a brick building that, it was later observed, "offered no security against fire."

One factor that had no small effect on the physical condition of the Declaration was recognized as interest in reproductions of the Declaration increased as the nation grew. Two early facsimile printings of the Declaration were made during the second decade of the 19th century: those of Benjamin Owen Tyler (1818) and John Binns (1819). Both facsimiles used decorative and ornamental elements to enhance the text of the Declaration. Richard Rush, who was Acting Secretary of State in 1817, remarked on September 10 of that year about the Tyler copy: "The foregoing copy of the Declaration of Independence has been collated with the original instrument and found correct. I have myself examined the signatures to each. Those executed by Mr. Tyler, are curiously exact imitations, so much so, that it would be difficult, if not impossible, for the closest scrutiny to distinguish them, were it not for the hand of time, from the originals." Rush's reference to "the hand of time" suggests that the signatures were already fading in 1817, only 40 years after they were first affixed to the parchment.

One later theory as to why the Declaration was aging so soon after its creation stems from the common 18th-century practice of taking "press copies." Press copies were made by placing a damp sheet of thin paper on a manuscript and pressing it until a portion of the ink was transferred. The thin paper copy was retained in the same manner as a modern carbon copy. The ink was reimposed on a copper plate, which was then etched so that copies could be run off the plate on a press. This "wet transfer" method may have been used by William J. Stone when in 1820 he was commissioned by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams to make a facsimile of the entire Declaration, signatures as well as text. By June 5, 1823, almost exactly 47 years after Jefferson's first draft of the Declaration, the (Washington) National Intelligencer was able to report "that Mr. William J. Stone, a respectable and enterprising Engraver of this City, has, after a labor of three years, completed a fac simile of the original of the Declaration of Independence, now in the archives of the government; that it is executed with the greatest exactness and fidelity; and that the Department of State has become the purchaser of the plate."

As the Intelligencer went on to observe: "We are very glad to hear this, for the original of that paper which ought to be immortal and imperishable, by being so much handled by copyists and curious visitors, might receive serious injury. The facility of multiplying copies of it now possessed by the Department of State will render further exposure of the original unnecessary." The language of the newspaper report, like that of Rush's earlier comment, would seem to indicate some fear of the deterioration of the Declaration even prior to Stone's work.

The copies made from Stone's copperplate established the clear visual image of the Declaration for generations of Americans. The 200 official parchment copies struck from the Stone plate carry the identification "Engraved by W. J. Stone for the Department of State, by order" in the upper left corner followed by "of J. Q. Adams, Sec. of State July 4th 1823." in the upper right corner. "Unofficial" copies that were struck later do not have the identification at the top of the document. Instead the engraver identified his work by engraving "W. J. Stone SC. Washn." near the lower left corner and burnishing out the earlier identification.

The longest of the early sojourns of the Declaration was from 1841 to 1876. Daniel Webster was Secretary of State in 1841. On June 11 he wrote to Commissioner of Patents Henry L. Ellsworth, who was then occupying a new building (now the National Portrait Gallery), that "having learned that there is in the new building appropriated to the Patent Office suitable accommodations for the safe-keeping, as well as the exhibition of the various articles now deposited in this Department, and usually, exhibited to visitors . . . I have directed them to be transmitted to you." An inventory accompanied the letter. Item 6 was the Declaration.

The "new building" was a white stone structure at Seventh and F Streets. The Declaration and Washington's commission as commander in chief were mounted together in a single frame and hung in a white painted hall opposite a window offering exposure to sunlight. There they were to remain on exhibit for 35 years, even after the Patent Office separated from the State Department to become administratively a part of the Interior Department. This prolonged exposure to sunlight accelerated the deterioration of the ink and parchment of the Declaration, which was approaching 100 years of age toward the end of this period.

During the years that the Declaration was exhibited in the Patent Office, the combined effects of aging, sunlight, and fluctuating temperature and relative humidity took their toll on the document. Occasionally, writers made somewhat negative comments on the appearance of the Declaration. An observer in the United States Magazine (October 1856) went so far as to refer to "that old looking paper with the fading ink." John B. Ellis remarked in The Sights and Secrets of the National Capital (Chicago, 1869) that "it is old and yellow, and the ink is fading from the paper." An anonymous writer in the Historical Magazine (October 1870) wrote: "The original manuscript of the Declaration of Independence and of Washington's Commission, now in the United States Patent Office at Washington, D.C., are said to be rapidly fading out so that in a few years, only the naked parchment will remain. Already, nearly all the signatures attached to the Declaration of Independence are entirely effaced." In May 1873 the Historical Magazine published an official statement by Mortimer Dormer Leggett, Commissioner of Patents, who admitted that "many of the names to the Declaration are already illegible."

The technology of a new age and the interest in historical roots engendered by the approaching Centennial focused new interest on the Declaration in the 1870s and brought about a brief change of home.

The Centennial and the Debate Over Preservation, 1876-1921

In 1876 the Declaration traveled to Philadelphia, where it was on exhibit for the Centennial National Exposition from May to October. Philadelphia's Mayor William S. Stokley was entrusted by President Ulysses S. Grant with temporary custody of the Declaration. The Public Ledger for May 8, 1876, noted that it was in Independence Hall "framed and glazed for protection, and . . . deposited in a fireproof safe especially designed for both preservation and convenient display. [When the outer doors of the safe were opened, the parchment was visible behind a heavy plate-glass inner door; the doors were closed at night.] Its aspect is of course faded and time-worn. The text is fully legible, but the major part of the signatures are so pale as to be only dimly discernible in the strongest light, a few remain wholly readable, and some are wholly invisible, the spaces which contained them presenting only a blank."

Other descriptions made at Philadelphia were equally unflattering: "scarce bears trace of the signatures the execution of which made fifty-six names imperishable," "aged-dimmed." But on the Fourth of July, after the text was read aloud to a throng on Independence Square by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia (grandson of the signer Richard Henry Lee), "The faded and crumbling manuscript, held together by a simple frame was then exhibited to the crowd and was greeted with cheer after cheer."

By late summer the Declaration's physical condition had become a matter of public concern. On August 3, 1876, Congress adopted a joint resolution providing "that a commission, consisting of the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Librarian of Congress be empowered to have resort to such means as will most effectually restore the writing of the original manuscript of the Declaration of Independence, with the signatures appended thereto." This resolution had actually been introduced as early as January 5, 1876. One candidate for the task of restoration was William J. Canby, an employee of the Washington Gas Light Company. On April 13 Canby had written to the Librarian of Congress: "I have had over thirty years experience in handling the pen upon parchment and in that time, as an expert, have engrossed hundreds of ornamental, special documents." Canby went on to suggest that "the only feasible plan is to replenish the original with a supply of ink, which has been destroyed by the action of light and time, with an ink well known to be, for all practical purposes, imperishable."

The commission did not, however, take any action at that time. After the conclusion of the Centennial exposition, attempts were made to secure possession of the Declaration for Philadelphia, but these failed and the parchment was returned to the Patent Office in Washington, where it had been since 1841, even though that office had become a part of the Interior Department. On April 11, 1876, Robert H. Duell, Commissioner of Patents, had written to Zachariah Chandler, Secretary of the Interior, suggesting that "the Declaration of Independence, and the commission of General Washington, associated with it in the same frame, belong to your Department as heirlooms.

Chandler appears to have ignored this claim, for in an exchange of letters with Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, it was agreed-with the approval of President Grant-to move the Declaration into the new, fireproof building that the State Department shared with the War and Navy Departments (now the Old Executive Office Building).

On March 3, 1877, the Declaration was placed in a cabinet on the eastern side of the State Department library, where it was to be exhibited for 17 years. It may be noted that not only was smoking permitted in the library, but the room contained an open fireplace. Nevertheless this location turned out to be safer than the premises just vacated; much of the Patent Office was gutted in a fire that occurred a few months later.

On May 5, 1880, the commission that had been appointed almost 4 years earlier came to life again in response to a call from the Secretary of the Interior. It requested that William B. Rogers, president of the National Academy of Sciences appoint a committee of experts to consider "whether such restoration [of the Declaration] be expedient or practicable and if so in what way the object can best be accomplished."

The duly appointed committee reported on January 7, 1881, that Stone used the "wet transfer" method in the creation of his facsimile printing of 1823, that the process had probably removed some of the original ink, and that chemical restoration methods were "at best imperfect and uncertain in their results." The committee concluded, therefore, that "it is not expedient to attempt to restore the manuscript by chemical means." The group of experts then recommended that "it will be best either to cover the present receptacle of the manuscript with an opaque lid or to remove the manuscript from its frame and place it in a portfolio, where it may be protected from the action of light." Finally, the committee recommended that "no press copies of any part of it should in future be permitted."

Recent study of the Declaration by conservators at the National Archives has raised doubts that a "wet transfer" took place. Proof of this occurrence, however, cannot be verified or denied strictly by modern examination methods. No documentation prior to the 1881 reference has been found to support the theory; therefore we may never know if Stone actually performed the procedure.

Little, if any, action was taken as a result of the 1881 report. It was not until 1894 that the State Department announced: "The rapid fading of the text of the original Declaration of Independence and the deterioration of the parchment upon which it is engrossed, from exposure to light and lapse of time, render it impracticable for the Department longer to exhibit it or to handle it. For the secure preservation of its present condition, so far as may be possible, it has been carefully wrapped and placed flat in a steel case."

A new plate for engravings was made by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1895, and in 1898 a photograph was made for the Ladies' Home Journal. On this latter occasion, the parchment was noted as "still in good legible condition" although "some of the signatures" were "necessarily blurred."

On April 14, 1903, Secretary of State John Hay solicited again the help of the National Academy of Sciences in providing "such recommendations as may seem practicable . . . touching [the Declaration's] preservation." Hay went on to explain: "It is now kept out of the light, sealed between two sheets of glass, presumably proof against air, and locked in a steel safe. I am unable to say, however, that, in spite of these precautions, observed for the past ten years, the text is not continuing to fade and the parchment to wrinkle and perhaps to break."

On April 24 a committee of the academy reported its findings. Summarizing the physical history of the Declaration, the report stated: "The instrument has suffered very seriously from the very harsh treatment to which it was exposed in the early years of the Republic. Folding and rolling have creased the parchment. The wet press-copying operation to which it was exposed about 1820, for the purpose of producing a facsimile copy, removed a large portion of the ink. Subsequent exposure to the action of light for more than thirty years, while the instrument was placed on exhibition, has resulted in the fading of the ink, particularly in the signatures. The present method of caring for the instrument seems to be the best that can be suggested."

The committee added its own "opinion that the present method of protecting the instrument should be continued; that it should be kept in the dark and dry as possible, and never placed on exhibition." Secretary Hay seems to have accepted the committee's recommendation; in the following year, William H. Michael, author of The Declaration of Independence (Washington, 1904), recorded that the Declaration was "locked and sealed, by order of Secretary Hay, and is no longer shown to anyone except by his direction."

World War I came and went. Then, on April 21, 1920, Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby issued an order creating yet another committee: "A Committee is hereby appointed to study the proper steps that should be taken for the permanent and effective preservation from deterioration and from danger from fire, or other form of destruction, of those documents of supreme value which under the law are deposited with the Secretary of State. The inquiry will include the question of display of certain of these documents for the benefit of the patriotic public."

On May 5, 1920, the new committee reported on the physical condition of the safes that housed the Declaration and the Constitution. It declared: "The safes are constructed of thin sheets of steel. They are not fireproof nor would they offer much obstruction to an evil-disposed person who wished to break into them." About the physical condition of the Declaration, the committee stated: "We believe the fading can go no further. We see no reason why the original document should not be exhibited if the parchment be laid between two sheets of glass, hermetically sealed at the edges and exposed only to diffused light."

The committee also made some important "supplementary recommendations." It noted that on March 3, 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt had directed that certain records relating to the Continental Congress be turned over by the Department of State to the Library of Congress: "This transfer was made under a provision of an Act of February 25, 1903, that any Executive Department may turn over to the Library of Congress books, maps, or other material no longer needed for the use of the Department." The committee recommended that the remaining papers, including the Declaration and the Constitution, be similarly given over to the custody of the Library of Congress. For the Declaration, therefore, two important changes were in the offing: a new home and the possibility of exhibition to "the patriotic public."

The Library of Congress . . . and Fort Knox, 1921-52

There was no action on the recommendations of 1920 until after the Harding administration took office. On September 28, 1921, Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes addressed the new President: "I enclose an executive order for your signature, if you approve, transferring to the custody of the Library of Congress the original Declaration of Independence and Constitution of the United States which are now in the custody of this Department. . . . I make this recommendation because in the Library of Congress these muniments will be in the custody of experts skilled in archival preservation, in a building of modern fireproof construction, where they can safely be exhibited to the many visitors who now desire to see them."

President Warren G. Harding agreed. On September 29, 1921, he issued the Executive order authorizing the transfer. The following day Secretary Hughes sent a copy of the order to Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam, stating that he was "prepared to turn the documents over to you when you are ready to receive them."

Putnam was both ready and eager. He presented himself forthwith at the State Department. The safes were opened, and the Declaration and the Constitution were carried off to the Library of Congress on Capitol Hill in the Library's "mail wagon," cushioned by a pile of leather U.S. mail sacks. Upon arrival, the two national treasures were placed in a safe in Putnam's office.

On October 3, Putnam took up the matter of a permanent location. In a memorandum to the superintendent of the Library building and grounds, Putnam proceeded from the premise that "in the Library" the documents "might be treated in such a way as, while fully safe-guarding them and giving them distinction, they should be open to inspection by the public at large." The memorandum discussed the need for a setting "safe, dignified, adequate, and in every way suitable . . . Material less than bronze would be unworthy. The cost must be considerable."

The Librarian then requested the sum of $12,000 for his purpose. The need was urgent because the new Bureau of the Budget was about to print forthcoming fiscal year estimates. There was therefore no time to make detailed architectural plans. Putnam told an appropriations committee on January 16, 1922, just what he had in mind. "There is a way . . . we could construct, say, on the second floor on the western side in that long open gallery a railed inclosure, material of bronze, where these documents, with one or two auxiliary documents leading up to them, could be placed, where they need not be touched by anybody but where a mere passer-by could see them, where they could be set in permanent bronze frames and where they could be protected from the natural light, lighted only by soft incandescent lamps. The result could be achieved and you would have something every visitor to Washington would wish to tell about when he returned and who would regard it, as the newspapermen are saying, with keen interest as a sort of 'shrine.'" The Librarian's imaginative presentation was successful: The sum of $12,000 was appropriated and approved on March 20, 1922.

Before long, the "sort of 'shrine'" was being designed by Francis H. Bacon, whose brother Henry was the architect of the Lincoln Memorial. Materials used included different kinds of marble from New York, Vermont, Tennessee, the Greek island of Tinos, and Italy. The marbles surrounding the manuscripts were American; the floor and balustrade were made of foreign marbles to correspond with the material used in the rest of the Library. The Declaration was to be housed in a frame of gold-plated bronze doors and covered with double panes of plate glass with specially prepared gelatin films between the plates to exclude the harmful rays of light. A 24-hour guard would provide protection.

On February 28, 1924, the shrine was dedicated in the presence of President and Mrs. Calvin Coolidge, Secretary Hughes, and other distinguished guests. Not a word was spoken during a moving ceremony in which Putnam fitted the Declaration into its frame. There were no speeches. Two stanzas of America were sung. In Putnam's words: "The impression on the audience proved the emotional potency of documents animate with a great tradition."

With only one interruption, the Declaration hung on the wall of the second floor of the Great Hall of the Library of Congress until December 1952. During the prosperity of the 1920s and the Depression of the 1930s, millions of people visited the shrine. But the threat of war and then war itself caused a prolonged interruption in the steady stream of visitors.

On April 30, 1941, worried that the war raging in Europe might engulf the United States, the newly appointed Librarian of Congress, Archibald MacLeish, wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr. The Librarian was concerned for the most precious of the many objects in his charge. He wrote "to enquire whether space might perhaps be found" at the Bullion Depository in Fort Knox for his most valuable materials, including the Declaration, "in the unlikely event that it becomes necessary to remove them from Washington." Secretary Morgenthau replied that space would indeed be made available as necessary for the "storage of such of the more important papers as you might designate."

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. On December 23, the Declaration and the Constitution were removed from the shrine and placed between two sheets of acid-free manilla paper. The documents were then carefully wrapped in a container of all-rag neutral millboard and placed in a specially designed bronze container. It was late at night when the container was finally secured with padlocks on each side. Preparations were resumed on the day after Christmas, when the Attorney General ruled that the Librarian needed no "further authority from the Congress or the President" to take such action as he deemed necessary for the "proper protection and preservation" of the documents in his charge.

The packing process continued under constant armed guard. The container was finally sealed with lead and packed in a heavy box; the whole weighed some 150 pounds. It was a far cry from the simple linen bag of the summer of 1814.

At about 5 p.m. the box, along with other boxes containing vital records, was loaded into an armed and escorted truck, taken to Union Station, and loaded into a compartment of the Pullman sleeper Eastlake. Armed Secret Service agents occupied the neighboring compartments. After departing from Washington at 6:30 p.m., the Declaration traveled to Louisville, KY, arriving at 10:30 a.m., December 27, 1941. More Secret Service agents and a cavalry troop of the 13th Armored Division met the train, convoyed its precious contents to the Bullion Depository at Fort Knox, and placed the Declaration in compartment 24 in the outer tier on the ground level.

The Declaration was periodically examined during its sojourn at Fort Knox. One such examination in 1942 found that the Declaration had become detached in part from its mount, including the upper right corner, which had been stuck down with copious amounts of glue. In his journal for May 14, 1942, Verner W. Clapp, a Library of Congress official, noted: "At one time also (about January 12, 1940) an attempt had been made to reunite the detached upper right hand corner to the main portion by means of a strip of 'scotch' cellulose tape which was still in place, discolored to a molasses color. In the various mending efforts glue had been splattered in two places on the obverse of the document."

The opportunity was taken to perform conservation treatment in order to stabilize and rejoin the upper right corner. Under great secrecy, George Stout and Evelyn Erlich, both of the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, traveled to Fort Knox. Over a period of 2 days, they performed mending of small tears, removed excess adhesive and the "scotch" tape, and rejoined the detached upper right corner.

Finally, in 1944, the military authorities assured the Library of Congress that all danger of enemy attack had passed. On September 19, the documents were withdrawn from Fort Knox. On Sunday, October 1, at 11:30 a.m., the doors of the Library were opened. The Declaration was back in its shrine.

With the return of peace, the keepers of the Declaration were mindful of the increasing technological expertise available to them relating to the preservation of the parchment. In this they were readily assisted by the National Bureau of Standards, which even before World War II, had researched the preservation of the Declaration. The problem of shielding it from harsh light, for example, had in 1924 led to the insertion of a sheet of yellow gelatin between the protective plates of glass. Yet this procedure lessened the visibility of an already faded parchment. Could not some improvement be made?

Following reports of May 5, 1949, on studies in which the Library staff, members of the National Bureau of Standards, and representatives of a glass manufacturer had participated, new recommendations were made. In 1951 the Declaration was sealed in a thermopane enclosure filled with properly humidified helium. The exhibit case was equipped with a filter to screen out damaging light. The new enclosure also had the effect of preventing harm from air pollution, a growing peril.

Soon after, however, the Declaration was to make one more move, the one to its present home. (See Appendix B.)

The National Archives, 1952 to the Present

In 1933, while the Depression gripped the nation, President Hoover laid the cornerstone for the National Archives Building in Washington, DC. He announced that the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution would eventually be kept in the impressive structure that was to occupy the site. Indeed, it was for their keeping and display that the exhibition hall in the National Archives had been designed. Two large murals were painted for its walls. In one, Thomas Jefferson is depicted presenting the Declaration to John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress while members of that Revolutionary body look on. In the second, James Madison is portrayed submitting the Constitution to George Washington.

The final transfer of these special documents did not, however, take place until almost 20 years later. In October 1934 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed the first Archivist of the United States, Robert Digges Wimberly Connor. The President told Connor that "valuable historic documents," such as the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution, would reside in the National Archives Building. The Library of Congress, especially Librarian Herbert Putnam, objected. In a meeting with the President 2 months after his appointment, Connor explained to Roosevelt how the documents came to be in the Library and that Putnam felt another Act of Congress was necessary in order for them to be transferred to the Archives. Connor eventually told the President that it would be better to leave the matter alone until Putnam retired.

When Herbert Putnam retired on April 5, 1939, Archibald MacLeish was nominated to replace him. MacLeish agreed with Roosevelt and Connor that the two important documents belonged in the National Archives. Because of World War II, during much of which the Declaration was stored at Fort Knox, and Connor's resignation in 1941, MacLeish was unable to enact the transfer. By 1944, when the Declaration and Constitution returned to Washington from Fort Knox, MacLeish had been appointed Assistant Secretary of State.

Solon J. Buck, Connor's successor as Archivist of the United States (1941-48), felt that the documents were in good hands at the Library of Congress. His successor, Wayne Grover, disagreed. Luther Evans, the Librarian of Congress appointed by President Truman in June 1945, shared Grover's opinion that the documents should be transferred to the Archives.

In 1951 the two men began working with their staff members and legal advisers to have the documents transferred. The Archives position was that the documents were federal records and therefore covered by the Federal Records Act of 1950, which was "paramount to and took precedence over" the 1922 act that had appropriated money for the shrine at the Library of Congress. Luther Evans agreed with this line of reasoning, but he emphasized getting the approval of the President and the Joint Committee on the Library.

Senator Theodore H. Green, Chairman of the Joint Committee on the Library, agreed that the transfer should take place but stipulated that it would be necessary to have his committee act on the matter. Evans went to the April 30, 1952, committee meeting alone. There is no formal record of what was said at the meeting, except that the Joint Committee on the Library ordered that the documents be transferred to the National Archives. Not only was the Archives the official depository of the government's records, it was also, in the judgment of the committee, the most nearly bombproof building in Washington.

At 11 a.m., December 13, 1952, Brigadier General Stoyte O. Ross, commanding general of the Air Force Headquarters Command, formally received the documents at the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Armed Forces Special Police carried the 6 pieces of parchment in their helium-filled glass cases, enclosed in wooden crates, down the Library steps through a line of 88 servicewomen. An armored Marine Corps personnel carrier awaited the documents. Once they had been placed on mattresses inside the vehicle, they were accompanied by a color guard, ceremonial troops, the Army Band, the Air Force Drum and Bugle Corps, two light tanks, four servicemen carrying submachine guns, and a motorcycle escort in a parade down Pennsylvania and Constitution Avenues to the Archives Building. Both sides of the parade route were lined by Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Marine, and Air Force personnel. At 11:35 a.m. General Ross and the 12 special policemen arrived at the National Archives Building, carried the crates up the steps, and formally delivered them into the custody of Archivist of the United States Wayne Grover. (Already at the National Archives was the Bill of Rights, protectively sealed according to the modern techniques used a year earlier for the Declaration and Constitution.)

The formal enshrining ceremony on December 15, 1952, was equally impressive. Chief Justice of the United States Fred M. Vinson presided over the ceremony, which was attended by officials of more than 100 national civic, patriotic, religious, veterans, educational, business, and labor groups. After the invocation by the Reverend Frederick Brown Harris, chaplain of the Senate, Governor Elbert N. Carvel of Delaware, the first state to ratify the Constitution, called the roll of states in the order in which they ratified the Constitution or were admitted to the Union. As each state was called, a servicewoman carrying the state flag entered the Exhibition Hall and remained at attention in front of the display cases circling the hall. President Harry S. Truman, the featured speaker, said:

"The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights are now assembled in one place for display and safekeeping. . . . We are engaged here today in a symbolic act. We are enshrining these documents for future ages. . . . This magnificent hall has been constructed to exhibit them, and the vault beneath, that we have built to protect them, is as safe from destruction as anything that the wit of modern man can devise. All this is an honorable effort, based upon reverence for the great past, and our generation can take just pride in it."

Senator Green briefly traced the history of the three documents, and then the Librarian of Congress and the Archivist of the United States jointly unveiled the shrine. Finally, Justice Vinson spoke briefly, the Reverend Bernard Braskamp, chaplain of the House of Representatives gave the benediction, the U.S. Marine Corps Band played the "Star Spangled Banner," the President was escorted from the hall, the 48 flagbearers marched out, and the ceremony was over. (The story of the transfer of the documents is found in Milton O. Gustafson, " The Empty Shrine: The Transfer of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution to the National Archives," The American Archivist 39 (July 1976): 271-285.)

The present shrine provides an imposing home. The priceless documents stand at the center of a semicircle of display cases showing other important records of the growth of the United States. The Declaration, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights stand slightly elevated, under armed guard, in their bronze and marble shrine. The Bill of Rights and two of the five leaves of the Constitution are displayed flat. Above them the Declaration of Independence is held impressively in an upright case constructed of ballistically tested glass and plastic laminate. Ultraviolet-light filters in the laminate give the inner layer a slightly greenish hue. At night, the documents are stored in an underground vault.

In 1987 the National Archives and Records Administration installed a $3 million camera and computerized system to monitor the condition of the three documents. The Charters Monitoring System was designed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to assess the state of preservation of the Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the Bill of Rights. It can detect any changes in readability due to ink flaking, off-setting of ink to glass, changes in document dimensions, and ink fading. The system is capable of recording in very fine detail 1-inch square areas of documents and later retaking the pictures in exactly the same places and under the same conditions of lighting and charge-coupled device (CCD) sensitivity. (The CCD measures reflectivity.) Periodic measurements are compared to the baseline image to determine if changes or deterioration invisible to the human eye have taken place.

The Declaration has had many homes, from humble lodgings and government offices to the interiors of safes and great public displays. It has been carried in wagons, ships, a Pullman sleeper, and an armored vehicle. In its latest home, it has been viewed with respect by millions of people, everyone of whom has had thereby a brief moment, a private moment, to reflect on the meaning of democracy. The nation to which the Declaration gave birth has had an immense impact on human history, and continues to do so. In telling the story of the parchment, it is appropriate to recall the words of poet and Librarian of Congress Archibald MacLeish. He described the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution as "these fragile objects which bear so great a weight of meaning to our people." The story of the Declaration of Independence as a document can only be a part of the larger history, a history still unfolding, a "weight of meaning" constantly, challenged, strengthened, and redefined.

The 26 copies of the Dunlap broadside known to exist are dispersed among American and British institutions and private owners. The following are the current locations of the copies.

National Archives, Washington, DC Library of Congress, Washington, DC (two copies) Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, MD University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (two copies) Independence National Historic Park, Philadelphia, PA American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Scheide Library, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ New York Public Library, New York Morgan Library, New York Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, MA Harvard University, Cambridge, MA Chapin Library, Williams College, Williamstown, MA Yale University, New Haven, CT American Independence Museum, Exeter, NH Maine Historical Society, Portland, ME Indiana University, Bloomington, IN Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, IL J. Erik Jonsson Central Library, Dallas Public Library, Dallas, TX Declaration of Independence Road Trip [Norman Lear and David Hayden] Private collector National Archives, United Kingdom (three copies)

The locations given for the Declaration from 1776 to 1789 are based on the locations for meetings of the Continental and Confederation Congresses:

Philadelphia: August-December 1776 Baltimore: December 1776-March 1777 Philadelphia: March-September 1777 Lancaster, PA: September 27, 1777 York, PA: September 30, 1777-June 1778 Philadelphia: July 1778-June 1783 Princeton, NJ: June-November 1783 Annapolis, MD: November 1783-October 1784 Trenton, NJ: November-December 1784 New York: 1785-1790 Philadelphia: 1790-1800 Washington, DC (three locations): 1800-1814 Leesburg, VA: August-September 1814 Washington, DC (three locations): 1814-1841 Washington, DC (Patent Office Building): 1841-1876 Philadelphia: May-November 1876 Washington, DC (State, War, and Navy Building): 1877-1921 Washington, DC (Library of Congress): 1921-1941 Fort Knox*: 1941-1944 Washington, DC (Library of Congress): 1944-1952 Washington, DC (National Archives): 1952-present

*Except that the document was displayed on April 13, 1943, at the dedication of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial in Washington, DC.

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Why is the Fourth of July celebrated with fireworks?

Should election day be made a national holiday like independence day.

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Independence Day

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When is Independence Day in the United States?

Independence Day is celebrated in the United States on July 4. Often the holiday is called the Fourth of July.

What is the Fourth of July?

The Fourth of July celebrates the passage of the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced the political separation of the 13 North American colonies from Great Britain.

In Fourth of July celebrations, fireworks signify national pride and patriotism. They had been used in China since at least the 12th century, and in the 15th century they became popular with European monarchs as a way to celebrate national triumphs, the restoration of peace, and the monarchs’ own birthdays. Fireworks have been part of Independence Day in the United States since its first celebration, in 1777.

Why did the North American colonies declare independence?

The Declaration of Independence , passed on July 4, 1776, reflected widespread dissatisfaction in the colonies with increased British control. Colonists especially opposed a series of unpopular laws and taxes enacted by Britain beginning in 1764, including the Sugar Act , the Stamp Act , and the so-called Intolerable Acts .

Whether election day should be made a national holiday like Independence Day is debated. Some say a holiday would increase voter turnout by enabling more people to vote while celebrating democracy. Others say a holiday would disadvantage low-income and blue collar workers and corporations should have better policies for voting time off. For more on the debate about making election day a national holiday, visit ProCon.org .

Recent News

Independence Day , in the United States , the annual celebration of nationhood. It commemorates the passage of the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.

The Congress had voted in favour of independence from Great Britain on July 2 but did not actually complete the process of revising the Declaration of Independence, originally drafted by Thomas Jefferson in consultation with fellow committee members John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and William Livingston , until two days later. The celebration was initially modeled on that of the king’s birthday, which had been marked annually by bell ringing, bonfires, solemn processions, and oratory . Such festivals had long played a significant role in the Anglo-American political tradition. Especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, when dynastic and religious controversies racked the British Empire (and much of the rest of Europe), the choice of which anniversaries of historic events were celebrated and which were lamented had clear political meanings. The ritual of toasting the king and other patriot-heroes—or of criticizing them—became an informal kind of political speech, further formalized in mid-18th century when the toasts given at taverns and banquets began to be reprinted in newspapers.

In the early stages of the revolutionary movement in the colonies during the 1760s and early ’70s, patriots used such celebrations to proclaim their resistance to Parliament’s legislation while lauding King George III as the real defender of English liberties. However, the marking of the first days of independence during the summer of 1776 actually took the form in many towns of a mock funeral for the king, whose “death” symbolized the end of monarchy and tyranny and the rebirth of liberty.

During the early years of the republic, Independence Day was commemorated with parades , oratory, and toasting in ceremonies that celebrated the existence of the new nation. These rites played an equally important role in the evolving federal political system . With the rise of informal political parties, they provided venues for leaders and constituents to tie local and national contests to independence and the issues facing the national polity. By the mid-1790s the two nascent political parties held separate partisan Independence Day festivals in most larger towns. Perhaps for this reason, Independence Day became the model for a series of (often short-lived) celebrations that sometimes contained more explicit political resonance , such as George Washington’s birthday and the anniversary of Jefferson’s inauguration while he served as president (1801–09).

The bombastic torrent of words that characterized Independence Day during the 19th century made it both a serious occasion and one sometimes open to ridicule—like the increasingly popular and democratic political process itself in that period. With the growth and diversification of American society, the Fourth of July commemoration became a patriotic tradition which many groups—not just political parties—sought to claim. Abolitionists , women’s rights advocates, the temperance movement , and opponents of immigration (nativists) all seized the day and its observance, in the process often declaring that they could not celebrate with the entire community while an un-American perversion of their rights prevailed.

With the rise of leisure , the Fourth of July emerged as a major midsummer holiday . The prevalence of heavy drinking and the many injuries caused by setting off fireworks prompted reformers of the late 19th and the early 20th century to mount a Safe and Sane Fourth of July movement. During the later 20th century, although it remained a national holiday marked by parades, concerts of patriotic music , and fireworks displays, Independence Day declined in importance as a venue for politics. It remains a potent symbol of national power and of specifically American qualities—even the freedom to stay at home and barbecue .

If we keep waiting like this, in a little time we won’t be able to eat our meal from Sinhala rice”. These are the words of a beautiful Sinhala song with anti-colonial nationalist sentiments, sung by one of Sri Lanka’s great artists, Sunil Edirisinghe. The words of the song call for revolting against Sri Lanka’s [...]

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Independence: Then and now

Tea fields developed by the British.

If we keep waiting like this, in a little time we won’t be able to eat our meal from Sinhala rice”. These are the words of a beautiful Sinhala song with anti-colonial nationalist sentiments, sung by one of Sri Lanka’s great artists, Sunil Edirisinghe. The words of the song call for revolting against Sri Lanka’s British colonial regime at the time and seem to be related to the Matale Rebellion in 1848 – that is 100 years before Independence.

I like the song too, but for a long time my attention has been caught up by one of its phrases about imposing a dog tax by the British colonial government. The literal meaning of the phrase goes as “why a tax on the loving doggy at a village home”. My concern about this particular phrase was not without a reason; let me explain.

The British colonial regime existed in Sri Lanka stretching for over one and a half centuries from 1796-1948.  After taking over the Kandyan Kingdom in 1815, the British government introduced far-reaching new taxes, including a “dog tax” as the song refers to, affecting particularly the rural peasantry.

Tax on doggy

British had already introduced a “dog tax” in their home country, England, in 1796 for two purposes as per the historical documents. One is, of course, the revenue purpose as the British government had faced a cash shortage due to wars and food crisis at the time. The second is the public safety because the dogs roaming freely in the cities had caused dog bites, diseases and deaths on people as well as on horses and sheep.

More than two centuries later, today, England and other developed countries have established more developed and more complex regulatory systems, including taxes and licenses, to cover domestic pets such as dogs and cats. These countries did not do away with their old laws and regulations but developed them into their modern forms covering all aspects of raising domestic pets.

During the colonial times, trespassing railway tracks and spitting on roads were some of the examples among many other laws which were treated as punishable offences. Today railway tracks are used not only for trespassing and walking, but also for building residential premises and other structures on either side encroaching public property. In fact, until the recent past such premises were unable to have legal access to public utility supplies such as electricity, water and cabled telephone connections as well as to obtain a formal address.

At the time of Independence

The country that Sri Lanka inherited from Britain in 1948 was much more prosperous and more modern with civil administration than most of the country’s Asian neighbours. For about 100 years, the British had invested in building an export-oriented plantation economy of tea, rubber and coconut. The thriving plantation economy had been generating foreign exchange flows resulting in trade surpluses.

In 1952, the then Minister of Finance, J.R. Jayewardene reported that unlike in other independent states in our neighbourhood, we in Ceylon did not have a foreign exchange shortage to start off our industrialisation.  The economic prosperity based on the plantation crops was instrumental in introducing the country’s welfare systems including health care and education, resulting in high human development standards.

The plantation economy helped the country to build its infrastructure including both the railway and the road network across the country, to develop a modern financial sector including the banking system, and to develop Colombo port and aviation services.

It was under the British government that Sri Lanka’s civil administration covering the entire island was established. Apart from that, Sri Lanka also inherited a well-functioning judiciary and the institutional mechanism for maintaining the country’s law and order.

Sri Lanka also inherited its multi-party democratic political system of the Westminster type. Britain had granted the country’s universal suffrage as far back as 1931, just after three years when it was established in their own home country, in 1928.

What more we want?

Joan Robinson, a Cambridge Economist who visited Sri Lanka in 1959, produced a research paper for the Planning Secretariat titled, “Economic Possibilities of Ceylon”. In this paper she mentioned that the country’s “…national income per head . . . is, up till now, one of the highest in Asia”. It is the same economist, who also stated in the same paper one of the important characteristics of the Sri Lankan economy about “eating the fruit without planting the tree”.

Another Cambridge economist, John Richard Hicks, who visited Sri Lanka in the same year wrote that the main development challenge that Sri Lanka was faced with was not that of raising the living standard, but of maintaining it in the face of a rapidly growing population. In Sri Lanka, “…there is not at the moment a crushing problem of poverty and malnutrition such as there is in neighbouring countries”.

Having observed all these great initial conditions at the time of Independence as well as the peaceful transfer of power from colonial rule to the nation, Donald Snodgrass, a British economist who carried out his PhD research work in Sri Lanka in the 1960s, questioned in one of his research papers: “What more could a newly independent nation want?”

Lee Kuan Yew, the late Prime Minister of Singapore, when he visited Sri Lanka for the first time in 1956, made this remark, which is published in his book – Singapore Story: “My first visit to Sri Lanka was in April 1956 on my way to London. I stayed at the Galle Face Hotel, their premier British-era hotel by the sea. I walked around the city of Colombo, impressed by the public buildings, many with stone facing undamaged by war…. Ceylon had more resources and better infrastructure than Singapore.”

After reading this passage for the first time, I also wondered why he had a stop-over in Colombo on his way to London. The conclusion I derived was that it could be that Colombo provided the air travel passengers the transit hub in the region, with connecting flights to other destinations.

After Independence

Sri Lanka received not just Independence in 1948 without any independent struggle, but also it came with a solid economic, social and political foundation for development that the British had laid down. Rather than building the nation on that foundation, the national leaders mixed up the national priorities and mis-guided the divided nation.

It all began with two major issues that had played an influential role in shaping the country’s post-independent developments. The first is a political question: Rather than building one nation, the leaders nurtured a broken nation along ethno-centric lines. Accordingly, Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims were divided according their ethno-centric and geopolitical interests, Burghers were forced to leave the country, and other minor community groups were cornered from the mainstream. The divisions played a major role in shaping the country’s economic future.

The second issue was nurturing economic isolation of the nation from the rest of the world. Sri Lanka, which had been an “open economy” for thousands of years and which had been the strength of the nation during the colonial times, had now begun to move along the isolation path after the 1950s. The path ended up with the polity reaching dirigisme and the economy reaching dire shrinkage by the 1970s.

Even though the country is said to have moved into an “open economy” in 1977, its open economic policy regime reversed over the past 30 years. The politics of ethno-centric nature and policies of economic isolation continued to haunt the future of the Sri Lankan nation. And, amid all that, today we celebrate our 76th Independence Day.

  (The writer is Emeritus Professor of Economics at the University of Colombo and can be reached at [email protected] and follow on Twitter @SirimalAshoka).

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Celebrating independence

Big land bank for successful slt bidder, from waste to wardrobe – slintec’s king coconut natural dye launched, sri lanka eyes floating solar projects due to land limitations, digital transformation game changer for development, plantations get fertiliser relief, banks combating rising credit card defaults, ts volumes up at colombo port, hip, valuing our freedom, colombo port to enhance capacity building, vat on knowledge, govt blames imf, government to enact a new public financial management act this month, imf has not shut the window for incentives, says ex-boi chairman, purposeful training for impact, ndb bank appoints kelum edirisinghe as ceo, saifudeen jafferjee elected chairman of jaaf, emirates lounge in colombo brings festive cheer to customers on independence day, ndb unveils “talking calendar”.

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Print Edition – The Sunday Times, Sri Lanka

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• Essay on Independence Day

Independence Day Essay

500+ words essay on independence day (15 august) for students and children.

India celebrates its Independence Day on 15th August every year. Independence Day reminds us of all the sacrifices that were made by our freedom fighters to make India free from British rule. On 15th August 1947, India was declared independent from British colonialism and became the largest democracy in the world. In this Essay on Independence Day, students will find all the important details of India’s Independence History. They can refer to it for their exam preparation, as essays are mostly asked in the CBSE English paper. Also, they can use this essay as a speech for the Independence Day function at school.

15th August is celebrated as a national festival with flag hoisting, parades and cultural events.

Schools, colleges, offices, society complexes, and government and private organizations conduct functions and celebrate this day with great enthusiasm. On this day, the Prime Minister of India hoists the flag at the Red Fort and addresses the nation with a speech. Doordarshan broadcasts the entire event live on television. Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru performed the first flag-hoisting ceremony on 15th August 1947 .

History of Independence Day

Britishers have ruled India for almost 200 years. Under British rule, the lives of the Indian people were miserable. Indians were treated as slaves and had no right to say anything to them. Indian rulers were mere puppets in the hands of British officers. Indian soldiers were treated inhumanely in British camps, and farmers were dying of starvation as they could not grow crops and had to pay heavy land taxes.

Our freedom fighters struggled for India’s Independence. Famous leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Mangal Pandey, Dada Bhai Naoroji fought fearlessly against the Britishers. Many of them also sacrificed their lives to make India free from British rule. Their contribution and effort are remembered in India’s Independence history.

Why Do We Celebrate Independence Day?

India achieved independence after years of struggle. India got complete freedom from the British and secured full autonomy on 15th August 1947. That’s why the day holds great significance in the heart of every Indian citizen living in India or abroad. India completed 73 years of freedom on 15h August 2020. This day also reminds us of the struggles of freedom fighters and the lives sacrificed by them in achieving independence. The pain that our heroes have gone through reminds us that the freedom we enjoy today has been earned by shedding the blood of lakhs of people. It also awakens a feeling of patriotism inside every citizen of India. It makes the present generation closely understand the struggles of the people at that time and acquaints them with the freedom fighters of India.

Significance of Independence Day

Independence Day generates a feeling of patriotism among people. It unites the people and makes them feel that we are one nation with so many different languages, religions and cultural values. Unity in diversity is the main essence and strength of India. We feel proud to be part of the largest democratic country in the world, where the power is in the hands of the common man.

We hope students found this essay on Independence Day interesting to read and helpful for their studies. For more information and the latest updates on CBSE & other Competitive exams, keep visiting BYJU’S. Also, download the BYJU’S App to watch interactive study videos.

Also Read: Republic Day Essay | Essay On Constitution of India | Essay on Women Empowerment

Frequently Asked Questions on Independence Day Essay

What is the meaning of independence.

Independence means freedom of any type of action without any control or influence.

When does our country India celebrate its Independence?

India was declared an Independent nation on the 15th of August, 1947.

Name a few freedom fighters of India.

Some of the great leaders who fought for India’s Independence were Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Netaji Subash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Sarojini Naidu and Rani Laxmibai.

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Importance of Independence Day Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay  on importance of independence day.

India celebrates Independence day on 15th August every year. As it is on this day in the year 1947 India got its independence from British rule. The reason that India got its’ Independence on 15th August was Lord Mountbatten considered this date lucky. Because it was the same day in the year 1945 the Japanese forces surrendered before him.

Furthermore, we celebrate Independence day to remember our Freedom Fighters . Because they were the ones who struggled for our country and sacrificed their lives. Our Independence day is of great importance to us. As it is the only day when we can remember our martyrs who died for the country. Also, it is the only day when we forget all our cultural differences and unite as one true Indian.

Importance of Independence Day Celebration

In our country, the Independence day celebration is done on a vast scale. Every government building is full of decoration with light. Also, these lights are of three colors orange, green, and white. Because these are the colors of our National Flag . Moreover, every person whether being a government or private official has to be present in the offices. To hoist the National Flag of our country and sing our National Anthem. However, there are other reasons Our Independence day is important to us

To Pay Tribute to Our Freedom Fighters

Our Freedom Fighters struggled for our country to make us free. Furthermore, they were the ones who sacrificed their lives for our country. It is on this day that every individual of the country pays tribute to them. In Schools and colleges, there is an organization of various functions. In this, the students perform acts to represent the struggle of our freedom fighters.

Moreover, the students have a solo and duet performance of patriotic songs. To fill us with the feeling of patriotism and love for our country. In offices, there is no work done on this day. Furthermore, the officials wear Tricolor dresses to express their patriotism for the country. Also in various offices, employees deliver speeches to enlighten people about the freedom struggle. And the efforts made by or freedom fighters to make this country an independent nation.

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To Kindle Patriotism in the Youth to Serve the Nation

The youth of our country has the ability to change the nation. As it rightly said that the future depends on the young generation. So it is our duty to serve the nation and make every possible effort to make our country better. One of the main motives for the celebration of Independence Day is to make our youth aware.

Moreover, it is to tell them how our country got independence from the clutches of the Britishers. And the sacrifices made by our freedom fighters because of their for the country. Furthermore, it is also done so that the children may come to know the history of their country. And the way the development took place in the past years. So that they be serious about their future careers and put efforts to make our country better.

FAQs on Importance of Independence Day

Q1. When is the Independence day of our country celebrated?

A1. The celebration of Independence takes place on 15th August every year. The date of Independence is 15th August because Lord Mountbatten – the Viceroy considered this date lucky.

Q2. How is Independence day celebrated?

A2. Independence day in our country is always celebrated with great enthusiasm. There is a Tricolor light decoration in the entire country. Moreover, it is the official holiday in the entire country. To remember the sacrifices of our martyrs. Also, their struggle for the country to provide us freedom.

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Essay on Independence Day [100, 120, 150, 200, 250 Words]

Essay on Independence Day in English : Every year on the 15th of August, the people of India celebrate Independence Day. In this article, you are going to read 5 essays on Independence Day of India (100, 120, 150, 200, and 250 words). These essays will be helpful for the students of all the classes (class 1 to class 12). If you are looking for paragraph on Independence Day, this article will also help you with that. So, let’s begin.

Table of Contents

Independence Day Essay: 100 Words

Independence Day of India is celebrated on 15 th August. On this day, India got freedom from British rule. On this day, The Prime Minister of India hoists the National Flag at the Red Fort, New Delhi. It was because of immense courage and sacrifice of our freedom fighters we got independence. We remember our great freedom fighters and martyrs on this day.

On 15th August the National Flag is hoisted in schools, colleges, government offices, residential buildings, etc. Various cultural activities are organized in different parts of the country. Independence Day fills Indian hearts with pride and patriotism.

Short Essay on Independence Day: 120 Words

We celebrate 15 th August every year as our Independence Day. On this day in 1947, India got independence from British rule. It is a day of great pride for all Indians. Independence Day is celebrated with great joy and happiness. The Prime Minister of India unfurls the National Flag and addresses the nation to mark the Independence Day.

On Independence Day, flag hoisting ceremonies and parades by armed forces and school children are held in different parts of the country. As part of the celebration, cultural events, quiz programs, and debates are organized in many schools and colleges. Independence Day reminds us of our glorious past and the sacrifices of the innumerable freedom fighters for the cause of India’s Independence. It inspires us to stand united and work together to build a strong nation.

Also Read: 10 Lines on Independence Day of India [2022]

Essay on Independence Day: 150 Words

India got independence on the 15th of august in 1947. Independence Day is celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm. On Independence Day we remember millions of our freedom fighters who sacrificed their lives for our independence. Independence Day ceremony is organized at the Red Fort on the 15th of August. The Prime Minister hoists the National Flag at Red Fort in the morning. He also delivers an address to the nation to mark the occasion.

We celebrate Independence day by hoisting the flag and singing the National Anthem. This day is observed as a national holiday across India. Schools and colleges organize cultural events, debates, and quiz competitions on this day. Sweets are distributed to everyone. People decorate houses, streets, and roads with National Flags and tricolor balloons to show their patriotism. We have to take a pledge to protect the freedom and sovereignty of the nation.

Essay on Independence Day: 200 Words

Independence Day is celebrated in India on the 15th of August with great joy and happiness. The day of August 15, 1947 is written with golden letters in the history of India. On this auspicious day, our country became independent from hundreds of years of British rule. Since then we celebrate this day as a national festival of India.

On this day every year, the Prime Minister hoists the National Flag from the ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi and gives a message to the countrymen. During the celebration, Indian Army performs march-past in front of the historic Red Fort. Many great freedom fighters such as Mahatma Gandhi , Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Kshudiram Bose, Chandra Sekhar Azad, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, sacrificed their lives selflessly for the freedom of India. We pay tribute to the Nation and the freedom fighters on Independence Day.

On this day fruits, sweets, etc. are distributed to the children. Flag hoisting ceremonies are held at schools and colleges on the occasion of Independence Day. On this day streets and roads of every city are decorated with the National Flag. Independence Day fills every Indian heart with pride and patriotism. This day also infuses new hope and energy among us.

Also Read: 10 Lines on Our National Flag

Independence Day Essay: 250 Words

India got independence from British rule on 15 august 1947 after long years of struggle and sacrifice. The Independence Day is celebrated with great pomp and show in every city and town of India. It is a festival of freedom for us. Independence Day is celebrated as a national holiday in India every year on 15th of august.

Many freedom fighters like Subhash Chandra Bose, Lala Lajpat Rai, Lokmanya Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel, Rani Laxmi Bai, and millions of others sacrificed their lives to make India an independent nation. Independence Day is a day to remember and honour them.

The main celebrations take place in the capital, New Delhi where the prime minister raises the flag and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from the ramparts of the historical site red fort. He gives a speech about the achievements of the government and gives guidelines for future development. After this event, a parade of defense forces, police forces, NCC cadets, scouts, cultural tableaus, and school children takes place at Red Fort. This is followed by a march past of army contingents, para-military personnel, and air force squadrons.

The President of India delivers an address to the nation on the eve of Independence Day every year. On this day, the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the Indian National Flag above the Lahori Gate of the Red Fort in Delhi. To commemorate the Independence Day people hoist the National Flag, sing patriotic songs and decorate their houses, streets, and roads with tricolor flags. Various cultural events are organized to pay homage and respect to our freedom fighters for their invaluable contribution.

Independence day is a matter of pride for all of us. We should work together to build up a strong nation.

Also Read: 5 Lines on Independence Day

Read More: 1. 5 lines on Our National Flag  2. Essay on My Vision for India in 2047 3. Wonder of Science Essay 

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Home » Resources » Writing » Essay on Independence Day | 15 August Essay In English | Independence Day 10 Lines

Essay on Independence Day | 15 August Essay In English | Independence Day 10 Lines

Essay on Independence Day can illustrate why we celebrate this day, its significance, the events that take place, and various other aspects of this important day. Here are some inspiring essays on Independence Day that are useful for all.

Independence Day Essay In English

August 15th, 2024, marks yet another year of India’s hard-earned freedom from British colonial rule. This day, observed as Independence Day across the nation, is a reminder of the sacrifices made by countless freedom fighters who fought tirelessly to give us the liberty we enjoy today. It is more than just a national holiday; it is a day to honor our past, reflect on our present, and commit to building a better future.

The Struggle for Freedom

India’s journey to independence was long and filled with struggle. The British East India Company began its foothold in India in the early 17th century, and by the 19th century, India was under full British control. This period was marked by exploitation, economic drain, and a denial of basic freedoms to the Indian people. However, the spirit of resistance never died.

The Revolt of 1857, although unsuccessful, was the first major uprising against British rule and laid the foundation for future freedom movements. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, with his non-violent approach, and Subhas Chandra Bose, with his more militant stance, galvanized the masses. Movements like the Salt March and the Quit India Movement rallied millions of Indians together in the demand for freedom. After decades of relentless struggle, India finally achieved independence on August 15, 1947.

The Significance of Independence

Independence brought with it the responsibility of nation-building. The leaders of the time, especially Jawaharlal Nehru, who became the first Prime Minister of India, were faced with the monumental task of uniting a diverse nation. The drafting of the Indian Constitution in 1950 was a significant milestone, laying down the principles of democracy, secularism, and equality that guide our nation to this day.

For us, Independence Day is not just about remembering the past but also understanding the value of freedom. It reminds us of the rights we enjoy as citizens of a free nation, but also of the duties we owe to our country. The freedom we have today was won with great difficulty, and it is our responsibility to preserve and strengthen it.

Celebrations and Reflections

Independence Day is celebrated with great enthusiasm throughout India. The main event is held at the Red Fort in New Delhi, where the Prime Minister hoists the national flag and addresses the nation. This is followed by a parade showcasing India’s cultural diversity and military prowess. Schools and colleges also hold flag hoisting ceremonies, cultural programs, and competitions that highlight the importance of this day.

As students, Independence Day is a time for us to reflect on our role in the nation’s future. We are the torchbearers of tomorrow, and it is up to us to contribute positively to the progress of our country. Whether through education, social service, or simply being responsible citizens, every action counts.

Independence Day is a powerful reminder of the sacrifices made for the freedom we enjoy today. As we celebrate this day in 2024, let us remember that with freedom comes responsibility. It is our duty to uphold the values of democracy, equality, and justice that our freedom fighters fought for. Let us pledge to contribute to our nation’s growth and make India a country that shines on the global stage.

Quick Links

• Independence Day Essay
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Independence Day 10 Lines in English

• Independence Day is celebrated on August 15th every year to commemorate India’s freedom from British rule in 1947.
• It marks the end of a long struggle for independence led by freedom fighters like Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru.
• The day is celebrated with flag hoisting ceremonies, parades, and cultural events across the country.
• The main event takes place at the Red Fort in New Delhi, where the Prime Minister addresses the nation.
• Independence Day is a reminder of the sacrifices made by countless individuals who fought for our freedom.
• Schools and colleges organize special programs, including speeches, dances, and patriotic songs, to honor the day.
• It is a day to reflect on the values of democracy, equality, and justice that form the foundation of our nation.
• Independence Day is also a time to remember our duties as citizens and to pledge to contribute to the country’s progress.
• The national flag is hoisted at homes, offices, and public places, symbolizing unity and patriotism.
• Independence Day inspires every Indian to work towards building a stronger, more prosperous, and inclusive nation.

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15 August Celebration: Essay on Independence Day for students and children

Important Things to Keep in Mind When Composing an Independence Day Essay

Independence day essay for children and students.

On 13 June 1971, an article in the UK's Sunday Times exposed the brutality of Pakistan's suppression of the Bangladeshi uprising. It forced the reporter's family into hiding and changed history.

Abdul Bari had run out of luck. Like thousands of other people in East Bengal, he had made the mistake - the fatal mistake - of running within sight of a Pakistani patrol. He was 24 years old, a slight man surrounded by soldiers. He was trembling because he was about to be shot.

So starts one of the most influential pieces of South Asian journalism of the past half century.

Written by Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani reporter, and printed in the UK's Sunday Times, it exposed for the first time the scale of the Pakistan army's brutal campaign to suppress its breakaway eastern province in 1971.

Nobody knows exactly how many people were killed, but certainly a huge number of people lost their lives. Independent researchers think that between 300,000 and 500,000 died. The Bangladesh government puts the figure at three million.

The strategy failed, and Bangladeshis are now celebrating the 40th anniversary of the birth of their country. Meanwhile, the first trial of those accused of committing war crimes has recently begun in Dhaka.

There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role.

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi told the then editor of the Sunday Times, Harold Evans, that the article had shocked her so deeply it had set her "on a campaign of personal diplomacy in the European capitals and Moscow to prepare the ground for India's armed intervention," he recalled.

Not that this was ever Mascarenhas' intention. He was, Evans wrote in his memoirs, "just a very good reporter doing an honest job".

He was also very brave. Pakistan, at the time, was run by the military, and he knew that he would have to get himself and his family out of the country before the story could be published - not an easy task in those days.

"His mother always told him to stand up and speak the truth and be counted," Mascarenhas's widow, Yvonne, recalled (he died in 1986). "He used to tell me, put a mountain before me and I'll climb it. He was never daunted."

A map of Pakistan before the 1971 war

When the war in what was then East Pakistan broke out in March 1971, Mascarenhas was a respected journalist in Karachi, the main city in the country's dominant western wing, on good terms with the country's ruling elite. He was a member of the city's small community of Goan Christians, and he and Yvonne had five children.

The conflict was sparked by elections, which were won by an East Pakistani party, the Awami League, which wanted greater autonomy for the region.

While the political parties and the military argued over the formation of a new government, many Bengalis became convinced that West Pakistan was deliberately blocking their ambitions.

The situation started to become violent. The Awami League launched a campaign of civil disobedience, its supporters attacked many non-Bengali civilians, and the army flew in thousands of reinforcements.

On the evening of 25 March it launched a pre-emptive strike against the Awami League, and other perceived opponents, including members of the intelligentsia and the Hindu community, who at that time made up about 20% of the province's 75 million people.

In the first of many notorious war crimes, soldiers attacked Dhaka University, lining up and executing students and professors.

Their campaign of terror then moved into the countryside, where they battled local troops who had mutinied.

Initially, the plan seemed to work, and the army decided it would be a good idea to invite some Pakistani reporters to the region to show them how they had successfully dealt with the "freedom fighters".

Foreign journalists had already been expelled, and Pakistan was also keen to publicise atrocities committed by the other side. Awami League supporters had massacred tens of thousands of civilians whose loyalty they suspected, a war crime that is still denied by many today in Bangladesh.

Eight journalists, including Mascarenhas, were given a 10-day tour of the province. When they returned home, seven of them duly wrote what they were told to.

But one of them refused.

Yvonne Mascarenhas remembers him coming back distraught: "I'd never seen my husband looking in such a state. He was absolutely shocked, stressed, upset and terribly emotional," she says, speaking from her home in west London.

"He told me that if he couldn't write the story of what he'd seen he'd never be able to write another word again."

Clearly it would not be possible to do so in Pakistan. All newspaper articles were checked by the military censor, and Mascarenhas told his wife he was certain he would be shot if he tried.

Pretending he was visiting his sick sister, Mascarenhas then travelled to London, where he headed straight to the Sunday Times and the editor's office.

Indians and Bengali guerrillas fought in support of East Pakistan

Evans remembers him in that meeting as having "the bearing of a military man, square-set and moustached, but appealing, almost soulful eyes and an air of profound melancholy".

"He'd been shocked by the Bengali outrages in March, but he maintained that what the army was doing was altogether worse and on a grander scale," Evans wrote.

Mascarenhas told him he had been an eyewitness to a huge, systematic killing spree, and had heard army officers describe the killings as a "final solution".

Evans promised to run the story, but first Yvonne and the children had to escape Karachi.

They had agreed that the signal for them to start preparing for this was a telegram from Mascarenhas saying that "Ann's operation was successful".

Yvonne remembers receiving the message at three the next morning. "I heard the telegram man bang at my window and I woke up my sons and I was: 'Oh my gosh, we have to go to London.' It was terrifying. I had to leave everything behind.

"We could only take one suitcase each. We were crying so much it was like a funeral," she says.

To avoid suspicion, Mascarenhas had to return to Pakistan before his family could leave. But as Pakistanis were only allowed one foreign flight a year, he then had to sneak out of the country by himself, crossing by land into Afghanistan.

The day after the family was reunited in their new home in London, the Sunday Times published his article, under the headline "Genocide".

'Betrayal'

It is such a powerful piece of reporting because Mascarenhas was clearly so well trusted by the Pakistani officers he spent time with.

I have witnessed the brutality of 'kill and burn missions' as the army units, after clearing out the rebels, pursued the pogrom in the towns and villages.

I have seen whole villages devastated by 'punitive action'.

And in the officer's mess at night I have listened incredulously as otherwise brave and honourable men proudly chewed over the day's kill.

'How many did you get?' The answers are seared in my memory.

His article was - from Pakistan's point of view - a huge betrayal and he was accused of being an enemy agent. It still denies its forces were behind such atrocities as those described by Mascarenhas, and blames Indian propaganda.

However, he still maintained excellent contacts there, and in 1979 became the first journalist to reveal that Pakistan had developed nuclear weapons.

In Bangladesh, of course, he is remembered more fondly, and his article is still displayed in the country's Liberation War Museum.

"This was one of the most significant articles written on the war. It came out when our country was cut off, and helped inform the world of what was going on here," says Mofidul Huq, a trustee of the museum.

His family, meanwhile, settled into life in a new and colder country.

"People were so serious in London and nobody ever talked to us," Yvonne Mascarenhas remembers. "We were used to happy, smiley faces, it was all a bit of a change for us after Karachi. But we never regretted it."

More on this story

Scars of Bangladesh independence war 40 years on

• Published 13 December 2011

Bangladesh confronts war crimes

• Published 20 November 2011

Controversial book accuses Bengalis of 1971 war crimes

• Published 16 June 2011

Related Internet Links

Bangladesh Genocide Archive

Bangladesh government

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• Independence Day 2024 Essay In Marathi 15 August Par Nibandh For School Students

15 August Essay in Marathi: स्वातंत्र्यदिनावर निबंध लिहताय? आकर्षक लिखानासाठी 'या' टिप्स ठरतील फायदेशीर

Independence day essay in marathi: या दिवशी, विद्यार्थ्यांसह, तरुण पिढीला स्वातंत्र्य दिनाचे महत्त्व सांगितले जाते. विद्यार्थ्यांना आपल्या देशाचा समृद्ध इतिहास समजावा यासाठी शाळांमध्ये विविध कार्यक्रम आयोजित केले जातात. स्वातंत्र्य दिनावर निबंध लिहिल्याने शालेय विद्यार्थ्यांना या ऐतिहासिक घटनेचे महत्त्व आणि त्याचे चिरस्थायी महत्त्व याविषयी विचार आणि चिंतन करण्यास मदत होऊ शकते..

स्वातंत्र्यादिनावर निबंध लिहिण्यासाठी काही टिप्स-

१. स्वातंत्र्य दिनाचे ऐतिहासिक महत्त्व-, २. स्वातंत्र्याचा प्रवास-, ३. विविधतेत एकता साजरी करणे-, ४. स्वातंत्र्यलढ्यातील योद्धे-, ५. स्वातंत्र्योत्तर आव्हाने, स्वातंत्र्यदिनावर निबंध कसा लिहावा, यावरील मुख्य मुद्दे-.

• निबंधाचा विषय व्यवस्थितरित्या पूर्णपणे समजून घ्या.
• निबंध लिहताना कोणत्या बाबींवर जोर द्यायचा आहे जाणून घ्या.
• महत्त्वाच्या मुद्द्यांवर विचार करण्यासाठी वेळ घ्या.
• लिहायला सुरुवात करण्यापूर्वी तुमचे विचार आणि मुख्य मुद्दे व्यवस्थित लिहून घ्या.
• प्रत्येक परिच्छेदात निबंधाचे समर्थन करणाऱ्या एका मुख्य कल्पनेवर लक्ष केंद्रित करा.
• मुद्द्यांचे समर्थन करण्यासाठी पुरावे, उदाहरणे आणि स्पष्टीकरण द्या
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Harris Is Set to Lay Out an Economic Message Light on Detail

The vice president is expected to recalibrate President Biden’s policy themes in a bid to turn the Democratic economic agenda into an asset.

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By Jim Tankersley and Andrew Duehren

Reporting from Washington

• Aug. 14, 2024 Updated 8:14 a.m. ET

Vice President Kamala Harris’s sudden ascent to the top of the Democratic ticket has generated a host of questions about her economic agenda, including how much she will stick to the details of President Biden’s positions, tweak them, or chart entirely new ones.

When she begins to roll out her policy vision this week, Ms. Harris is likely to answer only some of those questions.

During an economy-focused speech on Friday in Raleigh, N.C., Ms. Harris will outline a sort of reboot of the administration’s economic agenda, according to four people familiar with Ms. Harris’s plans.

She will lay out an approach relatively light on details, they said. It will shift emphasis from Mr. Biden’s focus on job creation and made-in-America manufacturing, and toward efforts to rein in the cost of living. But it will rarely break from Mr. Biden on substance.

That strategy reflects the advice economic aides have given Ms. Harris: to be clear and bold in talking about the economy, but not overly specific.

Her ability to do that has been effectively enabled by the unusual circumstances of Mr. Biden’s abrupt departure from the presidential race, which allowed Ms. Harris to secure the Democratic nomination without enduring a long primary campaign.

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